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/ 



F S T E R'S 



FIRST PRINCIPLES 



OF 



CHEMISTRY. 



ILLUSTRATED BY 

A SERIES OF THE MOST RECENTLY DISCOVERED AND 

BRILLIANT EXPERIMENTS KNOWN TO 

THE SCIENCE. 



ADAPTED SPECIALLY FOR CLASSES. 



*!*/; 



NEW YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
329 & 331 PEARL STREET, 

FRANKLIN SQUARE. 

1855. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by 

Harter & Brothers, 
In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of Xew York. 



;vit* 



PREFACE. 



The author of this strictly elementary series does 
not design it to take the place of the more elaborate 
works already in use, where extensive apparatus is at 
the command of the teacher ; but having been con- 
vinced from observation that the greater number of 
our academies and schools where Chemistry is pro- 
fessedly taught are destitute of the apparatus neces- 
sary to illustrate the text-books used, and that these 
text-books are not adapted to the wants of our primary 
schools, he respectfully presents this work, believing 
these objections to be in some measure obviated. 

The instructor in this important branch of popular 
education will find a few dollars' worth of apparatus 
sufficient to enable him to perform all the most beau- 
tiful and striking experiments embraced in large trea- 
tises, as well as the newly-discovered ones contamed 
in this. 

The aim has been to divest the subject of technical- 
ities, and to present each natural division in a strictly 
practical form, illustrated by diagrams and experi- 
ments so simplified as to be within the comprehension 
of the youth as well as the adult. 

The Imponderable Agents have not been introduced, 



IV PREFACE. 

for two reasons : 1st. The limits of this work would 
not permit it ; 2d. They are invariably introduced and 
treated at length by authors upon Natural Philosophy. 

The teacher and pupil will soon discern that this 
work is practically experimental, each of the numer- 
ous experiments contained in it having been performed 
by the author in various ways, and the simplest mode 
only described. 

Every experienced instructor is aware of the diffi- 
culty he invariably encounters when attempting to il- 
lustrate a chemical decomposition to students who are 
not familiar with Chemical Symbols. With a view 
to imprint these more firmly upon the mind, they are 
invariably used (after once introduced) in place of the 
name of the element or compound for which they 
stand, the name following in parentheses. The teach- 
er will also notice that a great number of new and 
simple diagrams have been introduced, in order to ren- 
der decompositions and combinations entirely clear to 
the student. These diagrams should be drawn upon 
the black-board and explained, which will be found the 
most expeditious and thorough method of illustrating 
the chemical changes contained in each lesson. Thus 
the student will soon become fax iliar with the ex- 
pressive language of Chemistry, and necessarily de- 
lighted with the certainty and beauty of the results 
produced. 



CONTENTS. 



LESSON I. 

PAGE 

Simple Affinity. — Single Elective Affinity 13 

LESSON II. 
Double Elective Affinity 18 

LESSON III. 
Change of Form. — Change of Temperature 21 

LESSON IV. 
Chemical Elements 24 

LESSON V. 
Division of Matter ; Atoms 25 

LESSON VI. 
Multiple Proportions 28 

LESSON VII. 
-ide, -uret, and -ite 30 

LESSON VIII. 
Hydrogen 32 

LESSON IX. 
Hydrogen (continued) 36 

LESSON X. 
Oxygen = ..,.41 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



LESSON XI. 

F1SI 

Protoxide of Hydrogen (Water) 48 

LESSON XII. 
Chlorine 53 

LESSON XIII. 
Hypochlorous Acid. — Chlorous Acid. — Chloric Acid. — Per- or Hy- 
perchloric Acid 57 



LESSON XIV. 



Nitrogen (Azote) 



60 



LESSON XV. 
Protoxide of Nitrogen (Exhilarating Gas) 63 

LESSON XVI. 
Nitric Acid 67 

LESSON XVII. 
Ammonia. — Carbon. — Carbonic Oxide 72 



LESSON XVIII. 
Carbonic Acid. — Carburetted Hydrogen. — Light Carburetted Hy- 
drogen. — Cyanogen. — Hydrocyanic Acid (Prussic Acid) 75 

LESSON XIX. 

Sulphur. — Sulphuretted Hydrogen — Hyposulphurous Acid. — Sul- 
phurous Acid 80 

LESSON XX. 
Sulphuric Acid 85 

LESSON XXI. 
Phosphorus. — Phosphuretted Hydrogen 89 



LESSON XXII. 
Silicon, — Silica. — Fiuorine. — Hvdrofluoric Acid , . 



93 



CONTENTS. Vll 

LESSON XXIII. 

PASS 

Aluminum. — Sodium. — Chloride of Sodium. — Potassium 97 

LESSON XXIY. 
Manganese. — Magnesium. — Magnesia. — Calcium. — Protoxide of 
Calcium (Lime). — Chloride of Calcium 101 

LESSON XXV. 
Iron. — Inorganic Elements. — Selenium. — Bromine. — Iodine. — 
Barium. — Strontium. — Cobalt. — Nickel. — Zinc 105 

LESSON XXVI. 
Tin. — Cadmium. — Lead. — Bismuth. — Copper. — Mercury. — Sil- 
ver 109 

LESSON XXVII. 

Gold. — Platinum. — Chromium. — Antimony. — Arsenic. — Arseni- 
ous Acid 112 

LESSON XXVIII. 
Acids. — Bases. — Salts. — Sulphates 117 

* LESSON XXIX. 
Nitrates. — Chlorates 121 

LESSON XXX. 
Phosphates. — Chromates. — Borates. — Carbonates 125 

LESSON XXXI. 
Fats and Alkalies 130 

APPENDIX. 
Solutions. — Infusions. — Litmus Paper 134 



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may be obtained in the drug-stores throughout the country ; manufac- 
tured and neatly packed by James R. Chilton, 93 Prince Street, New 
York. Price, $23. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OP CHEMISTRY. 



LESSON I. 
what does chem- Chemistry teaches us how many kinds 

istry teach us ? 

of matter there are in nature around us. 
what does it also It also shows us how one kind of matter 

show ] 

behaves toward another when brought in 
Give the example, contact. Example : Lard and water will 
if iye be added, not mix, though w r e apply heat. Now if 

we add lye, all three bodies unite, and form 
what, then, do we soap. So w T e infer that water does not at- 

infer ] 

tract lard, nor lard water ; but that lye at- 
tracts both, and thus draws them together. 
Bywhatisthebe- The Beha vior of the lard, water, and lye 

haviorofthelard, 

water, 

controlled 

how are chemical ty . Chemical Force and Chemical Attrac- 

force and chem- . . ' 

icai attraction tion are used in the same sense. 



f, and iye i s controlled by what chemists call Affini- 



used ? 



Simple Affinity. 



what is the color Experiment 1. Ignite a friction match 

of the flame of a 
friction match ? 
What is its odor ? 



in the air. It burns with a blue flame, 

wim has'theTee emitting a suffocating odor. The free ox- 
oxygen of the air . . 
united with i ygen ol the air has united with the free 

sulphur upon the match, and formed a pois- 

^SSdwmc/um- onous gas. The force which united these 

bodies ? e ^ e two free bodies is called Simple Affinity. 



14 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



Single Elective Affinity. 

Give a definite ex- Exp. 2. Dissolve half an OUnce Of SU- 

planation of Fx- , 

per. 2. gar of lead (acetate of lead), composed of 

acetic acid and Lead,* in four ounces of 
water. Add a few drops of acetic acid to 
clarify the solution, and pour off the clear 
liquid into a wide-mouthed bottle. Sus- 
pend in it by a thread a slip of sheet zinc 
three fourth* of an inch wide and two 

in the course of an inches long. In the course of one hour, 

place? brilliant foliated crystals of metallic lead 

will be seen shooting out from the zinc in 

what appearand every direction. These crystals will grad- 

do tht - „ . - 

grateaii iily assume the appearance ol an invert - 

what is the tr- ed tree, winch is called Arbor Saturm 

called '■ 

(lead tree). The action of the zinc upon 
the solution will be readily seen by a 
glance at the following diagram : 

Acid.. .Lead. Acetic Acid, Zinc 

Draw the diagram 
upon the black- 
board, and ex- 
plain the change. 

Zinc. Lead. 

The acetic acid and lead were held to- 
gether by a certain force : the zinc had a 

* Acetate of lead is really an acetate of oxide of 
lead, but the oxide in this experiment, as well as in 
several of the following, has been omitted for the sake 
of simp'' 




SINGLE ELECTIVE AFFINITY. 15 

stronger attraction for the acetic acid than 
the lead had for it ; hence the zinc united 
with the acetic acid, and the lead was set 
free in its metallic form. 

Explain Exp. 3. Exp. 3. Fill a small test-tube one third 
full of the solution of sugar of lead, form- 
ed by Exp. 2. Now add a few drops of 
sulphuric acid. A white powder will be 

of what is the thrown down, which is composed of sul- 

white powder . . >, 

composed? phuric acid and lead. At first the acetic 

acid and lead were united, but when the 

what effect did sulphuric acid was brought in contact, it 

the sulphuric 

acid have upon elected or chose the lead, and set the acet- 

the solution of ' _ 

sugar of lead? ic acid free. 

Fig. 2. 
Acetic Acid, . . Lead. Acetic Acid. 



Explain the 

change by Fig. 2. 




Sulphuric Acid. Sulphuric Acid, Lead. 



what is the com- Exp. 4. Pour a dram or two of a trans- 

monnameofsul- . 

phateofiron? parent solution of sulphate of iron # (cop- 
ifiron be brought P eras ) into a lar g e test-tube, and add a 

nutgaiTln soiS few drops of a colorless infusion of nutgall. 

does Thlf n^uid A jet black is instantly imparted to these 
t£™ sulphate transparent liquids. Sulphate of iron is 

of iron composed , r , , . . , , . m1 

of? composed ol sulphuric acid and iron. Ine 

When the nutgaU l . . 

chooses the iron, nutgall elects the iron and forms the ink, 

what becomes of ° 

the acid? while the sulphuric acid is set free. A 

what takes place few drops of a solution of oxalic acid will 

when oxalic acid 

is added T * p or t h e formation of solutions, see p. 134. 



16 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

now is the dark destroy the dark color by removing the 

<olor destroyed ! . 

iron from the nutgall. Add a lew drops 

of a solution of potassa, which will elect 

How does potassa the oxalic acid, when the iron will again 

Hon? unite with the nutgall, leaving the liquid 

black as before. Two or three drops of 

what takes place hydrochloric acid will combine with the 

chionc acfd is potassa, taking it from the oxalic acid, 

added? * = . 

which, now being liberated, unites with the 
iron, separating it from the nutgall, when 
the solution is again transparent. Add 

when ammonia ? some liquid ammonia, which will combine 
with the hydrochloric acid, taking it from 
the potassa, which will now unite with 
the oxalic acid, taking it from the iron, 
which, being released again, combines 
with the nutgall, and the liquid assumes 

if sulphuric acid a dark color. Lastly, add three or four 

be added, what . _ . _ ., . 

changes follow ? drops of sulphuric acid, which will elect 
the ammonia, taking it from the hydro- 
chloric acid, which now, set at liberty, 
unites with the potassa, taking it from 
the oxalic acid, which acid now combines 

is the solution left with the iron - removing it from the nut- 

plfrent ^ "*"*' c au - Nvnen the whole is again transparent. 

what is sulphate E.cp. 5. Into a weak solution of sul- 

of copper com- n . 

moniy called? phate oi copper (blue vitriol) drop some 
what follows liquid ammonia. A brilliant blue color 
moniais q addedTo will be instantly imparted to the liquid, 

a solution of sul- , . , . . , . - ,_, 

phate of copper- which is ammonia combined with copper. 



SINGLE ELECTIVE AFFINITY. 17 



Fig. 3. 
Sulphate of copper^ Sulphuric Acid 

Sulph uric A cid, Copper. (s et fre e). 



Draw and explain 
Fig. 3. 




Ammonia, Copper. 



The ammonia elects the copper, setting 
the sulphuric acid free. 
tf iron be im- Exp. 6. Into a strong solution of sul- 

mersed in a eolu- ,. r T . ; ,, , tit c 

tion of sulphate pirate ol copper dip the clean blade 01 a 

takes place? ' knife or an iron nail. Hold the metal in 

the solution for three or four minutes, 

when it will he covered with a beautiful 

coat of metallic copper. 

Fig. 4. 
Sulph uric A cid, Copper . Sulphu ric Aci d, Iron. 

Draw and explain 
Fig. 4. 

Iron. Copper (set free). 

Iron has a stronger attraction for sul- 
phuric acid than copper has for it. Hence 
the iron elects the acid, and the copper m 
set free in its metallic form. 
with what will a Exp. 7. Immerse a clean copper cent 
coE ?f n im- in a solution of nitrate of mercury. It 
mtion of nitrate will soon he coated with mercury in its 

of mercury? 

what does it then metallic form, when it will resemble a 
silver coin, and may be brightened with 
a piece of buckskin. 




18 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHE.MISTRV. 



Fig. 5. 



Draw and explain 
the diagram. 



What is nitrate of 
mercury com- 
posed of? 

What did the cop- 
per elect ! 

Was the mercury 
still united with 
the nitric acid ? 

G;\t n general def- 
inition of single 
elective affinity. 



Nitrate of Mercury^ 

Nitric Acid. Mercurv 



Copper. 



Nitric Acid, Copper. 




Mercury <set free). 



The copper elected the nitric acid, and 
the mercury was set free and deposited 
upon it. 

Single Elective Affinity, then, is that 
force which enables one body to elect or 
choose another which is combined with a 
third, which third body is always set free, 
while the first and second are united in a 
new compound. 



LESSON II. 
Doable Elective Affinity. 
what is produced Exp. 8. Into a solution of acetate of 
?£m «d l S£ lead pour some solution of alum* A 
P^ure d f toge d th^ white precipitate is the result. 



Fig. 6. 



Sulphuric Acid, Alumina. 



Alumina. Acetic Acid. 



Explain the figure. 




Acetic Acid, Lead. 



Sulphuric Acid. Lead. 



* Alum is a double salt, composed of sulphate of 
alumina and sulphate of potassa. But the 6ulphate 
of potassa is inert in the decomposition. 



DOUBLE ELECTIVE AFFINITY. 19 

is the decompose- Here we have a double decomposition, 

tion single? ... , 

is but one new giving rise to two new compounds, acetate 
ed? of alumina and sulphate of lead. The 

what becomes of acids of the two primary compounds have 
two primary changed places. The sulphuric acid of 

compounds! a i i 

what has the sui- the sulphate of alumina has elected the 

phuric acid of the A 

sulphate of aiu- i eac [ f the acetate of lead, and the acetic 

mina elected ? 7 

^tic acidciosen ?" ac ^ nas cnosen the alumina. Sulphuric 

I formed CO S P °sul- acid and lead > aS liaS ^eeil shoWll, Exp. 

fead nC soiuWe a ^n 3, form a compound which can not be dis- 
solved in water, therefore it is visible. 
Are acetic acid But acetic acid and alumina form a com- 
when united, soi- pound that is soluble in water, and hence 

uble in water? x ....,,., 

it remains invisible in the solution, 
if solutions of w- Exp. 9. Instead of the foregoing, use 

chromate of po- 

tassa and acetate solutions oi bichromate oi potassa and ace- 

oflead are pour- «? -i 

ed together, what tate of lead. A beautiful yellow powder 

follows? < J l 

what is its com- will be formed, which is the common 
it7 n nai ^hemicai chrome yellow of the shops. Its chem- 
ical name is chromate of lead. 
mi. i. 

Chromic Acid, Potassa. Potassa, Acetic Acid. 



Explain Fig. 7. 




Acetic Acid, Lead. Chromic Acid, Lead. 



what has the The chromic acid has united with the 

chromic acid . . 

combined with? lead, and the acetic acid with the potassa. 

What then be- r 

comes of the ace- 
tic acid ? 

Define double Double Elective Affinity, as will be 
seen from Exp. 8, 9, is that force which 



20 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

causes a decomposition of two compound 
bodies, and a union of their parts to form 
tvro new and distinct compounds. 

Further E a Double Elect- 

ice Affinity. 
what color is pro- Exp. 10. Use solutions of bichromate 

duced when solu- 
tions ofwehrom- f potassa and nitrate of silver. A rich. 

ate of potassa 1 

and nitrate of > l- carmine color will pervade the liquid. The 

ver are used ! * ^ 

two new compounds are nitric acid and 
whatisthechem- potassa (nitrate of potassa). and chromic 

ical name of the l N x 

*** 7 - acid and silver (chromate of silver), which 
IB the brilliant precipitate, 
if transparent so- Exp. 11. Into a solution of bichloride 

lutions of bichlo- 

mercur>- f mercuxv pour some solution of iodide 

and iodide of po- - 1 

cd^> iU eThS- e whIt °^ P° ta ^him (composed of iodine and po- 
Sn«d! " pro " tassium). From these perfectly transpar- 
ent solutions a beautiful vermilion color is 
obtained. The chlorine of the chloride of 
mercury has united with the potassium of 
the iodide of potassium, while the iodine 
combined with the mercury, forming iod- 
ide of mercury, the vermilion precipitate. 

Iodine, Potassium. Potassium. Chlorine. 



Explain figur 

From the forego- 
ing experin Chlorine. Me"r7u7v. MercuryTlodine. 
in simple, single 

doable* 1 electee From the foregoing experiments in Sim- 
ple, Single Elective, and Double Elective 




CHANGE OF FORM. 21 

Affinity, we learn that chemical force acts 
only between particles of different kinds 
of matter at invisible distances ; and that 
when bodies unite chemically, their prop- 
erties are entirely changed. Hence the 
resulting compound differs materially from 
either of its constituents, 
what changes has "We have already seen that chemical 
already effected affinity effects remarkable changes in the 

in bodies? J D 

color of bodies. We will now consider 
what is next to be change of form and change of tempera- 
ture as connected with this invisible force. 



LESSON III. 

Change of Form. 

if chaik be added Exp. 12. Fill a wine-glass half full of 
acid, what takes hydrochloric acid, and add small pieces of 
chalk until effervescence ceases. A por- 
tion of the solid chalk has passed off in 
the form of a gas, which caused the bub- 
what power, bling. Chemical affinity has power to 

then, has chemi- . .. 

cal affinity over COllVei't Solids to gases. 

solids ? ■ 

Exp. 13. Pour off some of the yellow- 
ish liquid formed by Exp. 12 into a test- 
Expiain Exp. 13. tube, and add a few drops of strong sul- 
phuric acid. The two liquids are convert- 
ed into a beautiful white solid, which is 



22 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

what power has sulphate of lime. Chemical affinity some- 
chemicai affinity , . . , .. 
over liquids? times changes liquids to solids. 

Exp. 14. Rinse out one wine-glass with 

hydrochloric acid, and another with liquid 

ammonia. Turn them bottom upward, 

and bring their mouths quickly together. 

Explain Exp. H. A white fume will fill both glasses, which 

is composed of small particles of a solid 

body (hydrochlorate of ammonia). The 

two liquids adhering to the sides of the 

glasses were first converted into gases, 

and from gases to the solid form. Chem- 

How does affinity . rr . . , . , 

act on gases ? ical alhnity converts gases to solids. 



now may loaf- Exp. 15. Dissolve some loaf-sugar in 

sugar be rapidly 



Change of Temperature 
15. Dissolve some loaf-s 
converted "" r into the least quantity of warm water. Let it 

charcoal? . , 

remain ten minutes or more with some 
undissolved sugar in the bottom of the 
vessel. It should be frequently stirred 
with a glass rod. Fill a wine-glass half 
full of the solution, and add strong sul- 
phuric acid until the glass is nearly full. 
The sugar will be rapidly converted into 
what is sugar charcoal. Sugar is composed of carbon 

composed of? . •1*1 

what effect is pro- and water. The acid unites with the 
acid? water, and sets free a sufficient amount 

what remains be- of heat to evaporate it, while the carbon 
is left behind in the form of finely pulver- 
ized charcoal. Tn this experiment we 



CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE. 23 

what first takes have, first, a change of temperature ; sec- 

pla.cc 1 

what second and ond, a liquid converted to vapor ; and third, 

a liquid converted to a solid, 
what have we "We have now learned that chemical af- 

now learned in . _ i <■ 

relation to the in- finitv has power to change the form, tem- 

visible force call- J r ° . . 

ed affinity? perature, and color of bodies. Indeed, it 

How are colors in is this unseen force, directed by a Divine 

Hand, that produces that endless variety 

of colors which deck the world in which 

what are absorb- we live. Yarious materials in transpar- 

ed into the struc- . 1 , ' . , _ 

ture of plants and ent solutions are absorbed into the struc- 

animals ? 

ture of plants and animals, and there un- 
can the changes dergo wonderful changes, many of which 
laboratory ? may be successfully imitated in the labora- 
tory. Chemical force, however, is some- 
times directed with such matchless skill 
in the formation of colors that they can 
not be "imitated by man. The delicate 
WTiat is said of tints which we witness in the butterfly's 
wing and the P e- wing, in the peacock's tail, and in the 

tals of the flow- i n n i m 

er? petals of flowers, have ever bamed the 

skill of the artistic chemist. 

What agents af- Chemical Affinity is affected by the in- 
finity? ponderable Agents. Light, Heat, Elec- 

Why are they caii- tricity, and Gralvanism, are called impon- 

ed imponderable? x 

derable agents, because they have no 
what do heat and weight. Heat and Gralvanism usually 

galvanism pro- . . . T 

mote? promote decomposition [analysis). Light 

what do light and and Electricity facilitate combination 

electricitv pro- 

mote? ' [synthesis). But, as these agents belong 



24 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

To what branch more properlv to Natural Philosophy, they 

of natural science * J 

do the imponder- will not be treated of in this work. 

able agents more 
properly belong ? 



LESSON IV. 
Chemical Elements. 
Bodies that chem- Such bodies as chemists have not been 

ists have been 

pSs a e bl Vre bailed a ^ e *° decompose are called Ele m en ts, or 
cZTzn example. sim P le bodies; 00, Iron, Sulphur, Nitro- 
How many eie- pr en & c . Of these elements, sixty-five 

ments have al- ^ 7 7 

covcred b r n dls " k ave aD:ea dy been discovered. The most 
which are the important of the elements are such as 

most important * 

of the dements? combine to form the structure of our bod- 
ies, those of the lower animals, and plants. 
They are sixteen in number : Hydrogen, 

Name them. Oxygen, Chlorine, Nitrogen, Carbon, Sul- 
phur, Phosphorus, Silicon, Fluorine, Cal- 
cium, Aluminum, Sodium, Potassium, 
Magnesium, Manganese, and Iron. 

Chemical Symbols. 
How do chemists For the sake of convenience, chemists 

now represent el- , . , ,. , 

ementary bodies! now represent elementary bodies by sym- 



Why ? 



bols. thus : 



what does h Hydrogen is represented by H. 

stand for ? O ? .~ * , . . ' ^ 

en hi ct Oxygen " " O. 

Chlorine " « CI. 

Nitrogen M * N. 

Carbon « C. 



DIVISION OF MATTER ATOMS. 25 

s? p? si? .ft Sulphur is represented by S. 

Phosphorus " " P. 

Silicon " « Si. 

Fluorine " " F. 

Calcium " " Ca. 

Ai? Na? what Aluminum " " Al. 

name 1 ? 8 Sodium (Latin Natrum) Na. 

k? its Latin Potassium (Latin Kalium) K. 

Magnesium " " Mg. 

M g ?Mn? Manganese " " Mn. 

Fe? The Latin? Iron (Latin Ferrum) " Fe. 

what do these These sixteen simple bodies, in various 

sixteen simple . - i m n 

bodies form? combinations, form rocks and soils, as well 
as all organic bodies upon the surface of 
the earth, together with the atmosphere 
and the waters of the ocean.* 



LESSON V. 
Division of Matter — Atoms. 
what does the The word Atom means that which can 
mean? not be divided. All bodies are composed 

What are all bod- « . i • i i i i tit 

ies composed of? oi atoms, which, are probably globular. 

What is the prob- 

able shape of at- .They have never been seen, as they are so 

oms ? 

Have atoms ever small as to baffle the powers of the micro- 
been seen ? * 

why not? scope. Their existence, however, is well 

Is their existence *■ ' ' 

established? established. 

* Other elements are found in very minute quanti- 
ties in rocks, soils, and organic bodies. 

B 



26 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY 



Atomic Numbers. 
what is found by It is found by experiment that simple 

bodies unite only in fixed quantities. For 
of what is water example, the water we drink is composed 

of two gases, Oxygen and Hydrogen. It 
How much, by requires just one ounce of H to unite with 

weight, of each? . 

eight ounces oi U. and ll we attempt to 

combine more or less of either of these 

why must the elements, we shall fail. The proportion 

proportion be in- • i 1 n i • i 

variably pre- must invariably be preserved, or a residue 
of either the one or the other element will 
remain uneombined. 

How do au rie- All elementary bodies unite with each 
umte .' " ^ other in determinate quantities by weight. 

why is hydrogen II (hydrogen), being the lightest of the 
elements, is taken as unity, and all other 
elements are compared with it. Thus. 

how bw rv* I grain of H will unite with 35 grains of 
with thirty-five CI (chlorine), 6 of C (carbon), 8 of (ox- 

p-ams of chlo- V n X ' V 

rine; vsren). vxc. rJut H (nvdrosren) will not 

Will II unite with ■ - ' * 

calcium: unite with Ca (calcium), and will. 

Now we find that 20 grains of Ca will 
unite with S grains of 0, and 8 grains of 

H recUy 1S compared *■** 1 ° l H * TllUS Ca ** m(UreC tly 

AVhen Cal i S uni this compared with H. This indirect mode 

of dire com P arison °f comparison is always made where the 

vv^n we speak element does not unite with H. When we 

ways'asJociate'd speak of H, 1 is always associated in the 

ofo? ofc'i mind; of 0, S. and of C (carbon), 6. <x:c. 



ATOMIC NUMBERS. 



27 



What are 
atomic numbers 
sometimes call- 
ed? 



What does an at- 
omic number ex- 
press ? 



What is the atom- 
ic number of H 
(hydrogen) ? 

Of O (oxygen) ? 

Of CI (chlorine)"? 

Of N (nitrogen)? 

Of C (carbon) ? 

Of S (sulphur) ? 

Of P (phosphor- 
us)? 

Of Si (silicon) ? 

Of F (fluorine) ? 

Of Ca (calcium) ? 

Of Al (alumin- 
um)? 

Of Na (sodium) ? 

Of K (potassi- 
um)? 

Of Mg (magnesi- 
um)? 

Of Mn (manga- 
nese) ? 

OfFe (iron)? 



These atomic numbers are sometimes 
called Definite Proportions, Chemical 
Equivalents, and Combining Numbers. 
These different expressions, however, mean 
the same thing, namely, the quantity by 
weight of one element that is required to 
satisfy its affinity for 1 of H or 8 of 0. 
The following table exhibits the atomic 
number of each of the sixteen organic ele- 
ments. 



H = 1* 

0=8. 
Cl=35.f 
N=14. 
C = 6. 
S =16. 
P=32. 
Si = 21. 



F =19 
Ca=20 
Al =14 
Na = 23, 

K =39 
Mg=13 
Mn=28 

Fe=28 



* On the Continent of Europe the atomic number 
of oxygen is taken as 100, in which case hydrogen 
would be 12-5, carbon 75, &c. 

t The atomic number of some of the elements is 
composed of a whole number and a fraction. The 
fraction, for the sake of simplicity, has been omitted 
where it was less than one half, and a unit added 
where it -was greater. 




28 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



LESSOH VI 

Multiple P r opart io 

when dements "When elements combine in more pro- 
unite in more , . , . , . 
proportions than portions than one. the quantity ot each is 

also fixed, but the sweater is always a mul- 

■VN hat is said of ° 

the gr tiple of the less by a whole number : e. 2\. 

Give the example. 1 at. of X(14) Unites With 1 at. of 9 

1 •• N(14) - « 2 ate. of' 

1 " X Li) « •• 3 •• 
1 M N(14) •• " 4 " I 

1 - " "(40). 

Or. in strictly chemical language. 

Gireitinchennc- NO, N 

wha^S??.' 3. 4, 16. 24. 3*2. and 40 are multiples o: 

the whole numbers 2, 3. 4. and 5. Some- 
How do elements thnes elements unite in the proportion of 
can an atom be 1 ut as an atom is not divisible, 

what. then, is it is presumed that 2 of the one is com- 
bined with 3 of the other, which will pre- 
what example ta serve the proportion : thus. 1 : 1 J :: 2 : 3 ; 
lis of iron unite with 3 atoms 
when elements of oxvsren to form iron rust "When ele- 

unite in the pro- . H , 

portion on to it. ments umte in the proportion oi 1 to If, 

what term is ap- * 

plied to them? the term Stsqui- is applied to them. 
Hence iron rust is a sesquioxide of iron. 



MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS. 



29 



How are per or 
hyper used I 



When applied to 
oxygen acids, to 
what do these 
two prefixes ap- 
ply ! 

"What does the 
termination ic in- 
dicate ? 

What ous 1 
What hypo ! 
Give the example. 



Per- or Hyper-, -ic, -ous, and Hypo-. 
When one element unites with another, 
the prefix per or hyper is used to denote 
the greater though indefinite quantity of 
the first element named, except when ap- 
plied to acids, when it implies the great- 
er amount of only. The termination 
-ic in acids indicates more than -ous, 
and -ous more than hypo- ; e. g., 
CI and (CIO) form hypochlomus acid. 



CI 

CI 
CI 

cr 



3 (CIO 3 ) 

4 (CIO 4 ) 

5 (CIO 5 ) 
p 7 (C10 : ) 



chlorous " 
hypochloiic " 

chloric " 
per or A^perchloric 
acid. 



What does proto 

denote ? 



Dento or bi ? 



TTito or ter ! 
Quadro \ 



Is quadro often 
used ' 



Proto-, Deuto- or Bi-, Trite- or Ter-, 
and Quadro-. 
Proto- denotes 1 atom of each of two 
bodies which are united in a compound ; 
prot oxide of hydrogen (water) is composed 
of 1 atom or equivalent of H and 1 of 0. 
Deuto- or bi- is used where 2 atoms of 
one body are combined with 1 atom of 
another ; as, detitoxide or binoxide of ni- 
trogen (XO 2 ). Trito- or ter- is prefixed 
where 3, and quadro- where 4 atoms of 
one body are united with 1 atom of anoth- 
er. Quadro is seldom used. 



30 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



LESSON YE. 
-ide, -irret, -ate, and -ite. 
Howisthetermin- (oxygen), and all elements ending in 
', when united with another, take the 
termination -ide when the compound is 
Give examples, not acid ; as, oxide of calcium (lime), 
chloride of sodium (common salt). The 
0, however, in a few instances, is repre- 
whatissaidofa? sented hy -a; as, soda for oxide of sodi- 
um, potassa for oxide of potassium, and 
what or other silica for oxide of silicon. Other non-me- 
rne'ms? tallic elements have the termination 

urnpics. -in'ft f* snlphuret of iron, carhuret of 
hydrogen, 6cc. 
when the acid Salts formed from an acid and a base 

ends in ic. how . . . , , . , , 

does the salt end in -ate when the acid ends in -tc; 

sulphurte acid and soda form sulphate of 

ifthe acid ends in soda. When the acid ends in -ous, the 

ous, how ] ... c , , , -it 

salt ends in -ite. Stupirarott* acid and 

soda form sulphate of soda. If the acid 

when hypo is pre- has the prefix hypo-, the resulting salt al- 

fixed to the acid, . . , , , , ,_ . , , 

what of the salt! ways retams it : //#^osulpnuro?<s acid and 
Give an example, soda form hyposulphite of soda. 

* Professor Gregory, of Edinburgh, and some oth- 
er authors, use the termination -ide in preference to 



FORMULAS. 31 



Formulas. 
what is a chemi- Two or more symbols placed together 
what is the for- constitute a formula. HO is the formula 
when more than for water. When more than one atom of 

one atom of an . . , i • , • 

element is to be an element is to be expressed, it is accom- 

expressed, how . ■ 

is it accomplish- phshed by placing a small figure either 
write an example above or below the symbol, thus : SO 2 or 

board. . S0 2 shows that one atom of sulphur is 

combined with two atoms of oxygen. 
How do com- Two or more compound bodies united 

pound bodies , -,-, 1 ii • it , -t 

have their sym- chemically nave tneir symbols separated 

writ e Se an ra exam- by a , or the sign -f ; SO 3 , HO, or SO 3 

+ HO, indicates that the compound SO 3 

is chemically united^ with the compound 

what does a large HO. "When a large figure precedes a for- 

pilsh when mula or a symbol, it multiplies all the 

placed before a ~ m * 

symbol or formu- symbols until a , or the sign + intervenes, 
when placed be- A large figure placed before brackets mul- 
what? ' tiplies all the symbols included between 

them. 



-xiret. But as there is more euphony in sulphuret than 
in sulphide, chemists in the United States have adopt- 
ed the termination -uret instead of -idc. 

* Many bodies are mechanically mixed, though not 
chemically united. When bodies are chemically 
united, the compound invariably possesses different 
properties from either of its component parts. But if 
mechanically mixed, no change of properties will have 
taken place. 



32 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



LESSON YIIL 
Hydrogen. Equivalent 1. Symbol H. 
Explain the appa- Exp. 16. Introduce a handful of .slips 

rams for obtain- . 

mgii. of zinc into a bottle having a wide mouth, 

and containing at least a pint. Add a 
half pint of water, and insert a cork, which 
should be nicely fitted with a glass funnel 
tube reaching nearly to the bottom of the 
bottle ; another tube, bent at right angles,* 
should merely pass through the cork. 
Connected with this latter tube there 
should be one of the same size, and in 
shape resembling the letter S, joined by 
means of an india rubber connector. Now 
pour an ounce of SO 3 . HO (sulphuric 
acid) through the funnel-tube, and H 
(hydrogen) will be rapidly disengaged, 
How may h be which may be collected in half gallon 

collected for ex- . . 

periment? candy-jars over water for experiment, by 

means of the pneumatic trough (Fig. 9). 
The trough should be filled with water, 
and, in order to remove the air from the 

* Glass tubes may be readily bent by holding them 
in the flame of a spirit-lamp and applying a gentle 
pressure. 







How must the air 
be removed from 
the jar previous 
to admitting the 
gas? 

"Why are the first 
portions of the 
gas to be reject- 



TVhy does H dis- 
place the water in 
the jar ? 



How may the jar 
be removed when 
filled with H 1 



Explain the wash- 
bottle. 



jar previous to admitting the gas, it should 
be dinned into the trough, and when filled 
with water, inverted upon the pneumatic 
shelf, beneath the surface. Reject the 
first portions of gas generated, as they are 
mixed with the air which was in the gen- 
erator. Now pass the tube which con- 
ducts the gas under the mouth of the jar, 
which will soon be filled with H, the wa- 
ter being displaced by the gas. As soon 
as H commences * to escape from the 
mouth of the jar, it may be removed by 
sliding it upon a common dinner-plate 
filled with water, taking care to keep the 
mouth of the jar beneath the surface. 
Other jars may be filled in a similar man- 
ner. Remove the external tube, and con- 
nect the wash-bottle (Fig. 10), which, 
B2 



34 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

Fie. 10. 




What should it 
contain ! 



Why should the 
end of the tube be 
tied over with 
flannel J 



What object is ac- 
complished by 
the washer ? 



What materials 
were used • 



like the generator, consists of a bottle and 
two tubes. It should contain a solution 
cf potassa (one half drachm of potassa to 
three ounces of water), and the end of the 
conducting tube should be tied over with 
a piece of canton flannel, in order to force 
the gas into the solution in small bubbles. 
The solution should not cover the mouth 
of the tube more than half an inch deep. 
Press out the air from a gas-bag contain- 
ing about one gallon, and connect it with 
the washer (wash-bottle). It will soon be 
filled with H. sufficiently pure for practi- 
cal purposes. The object of the washer 
is to remove small particles of S0 3 HO 
(sulphuric acid), which always pass over 
mechanically mixed with the gas. The 
materials used for obtaining H were HO 



HYDROGEN. 35 

(water), S0 3 HO (sulphuric acid), and Zn. 
(zinc). Fig. 11 will present a clear view 
of the decomposition. 

Fig.U. 
HO H (set free). 




Draw the dia- 
gram. 



SO», H O ZnO S03 ; HO 

[A semicolon separating two symbols shows that they are not 

chemically united.] 

what does an at- An atom of Zn elects an atom of 

om of zinc elect ? r , TTr . , . , , . ,', 

what does it elect from the HO, which was chemically 



united with O 
form? 
What is set free ? 



whaf "do^zinc united with the SO 3 , and forms ZnO (ox- 
ide of zinc), while one atom of H is set 
free and passes upward in its gaseous 
form. The action would here cease, as 
the surface of the metal is now covered 

what does an at- with the oxide, but an atom of liberated 
soa unite with? SO 3 combines instantly with this oxide, 

what salt is form- and dissolves it, forming sulphate of ox- 
ide of zinc. This sulphate would again 
put an end to the action of the metal, as 

why does not this it would cover the surface, but the free 
endtothedecom- HO (water) dissolves it as fast as it is 

position? 

formed. Thus a constant clean metallic 
surface is presented to the HO of the SO 3 , 
now long win h and a constant liberation of H follows un- 
til some of the materials are exhausted.* 
* The commonly received theory of the formation 



36 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



LESSON IX. 
Hydrogen {continued). 
what takes place Exp. 17. Uae HC1 (hydrochloric acid) 
tic Tcii i^used instead of S0 3 HO, and the process will be 

instead of sul- 



phuric • 



of H is, that the zinc unites with the of the free 
water, instead of the water which is combined with 
the SO 3 , which conclusion resulted probably from the 
well-known fact that several of the metals, when pre- 
sented to water without the presence of an acid, will 
slowly become oxydized. Hence the S0 3 HO (sul- 
phuric acid) was supposed to act as a solvent of this 
oxide, while the free water was decomposed. This 
theory, however, is erroneous, as will appear from the 
following considerations : 1st, it is a fixed law, to 
which there are no exceptions, that when a metal is 
presented to two compounds containing O, and it 
elects this element from one of them, it invariably 
takes it from the compound which is easiest decom- 
posed. Ternary compounds are easier decomposed 
than binary. S0 3 HO is a ternary compound, and free 
HO is binary. Hence the zinc must take from the 
S0 3 HO. 2d, Sulphuric acid, in its active state, is 
SO*, H, and here the force which holds the H and 
together is divided into three parts instead of two, in 
the case of water ; therefore free HO requires more 
force to decompose it than HO when chemically com- 
bined with S. The metal, it is true, will slowly elect 
from free water when the acid is not present, but 
as soon as the acid is presented, the action is entirely 
changed, as is now presented to the metal which it 



HYDROGEN. 37 

more simple. In this decomposition the 

Fig. 12. 
H, CI. H (set free). 

"J" 



Draw and explain 
Fig. 12. 



zinc simply unites with the CI of the 

Give the formula, acid, and the H is liberated. Formula, 
HC1; Zn=ZnCl; H. 

Exp. 18. Attach a "bubble-pipe to the 
gas-bag containing H, and fill soap-bub- 
bles with the gas ; they rapidly ascend. 

is h heavier than Hence H is lighter than air. Apply a 
lighted candle to a bubble after it is dis- 
engaged from the pipe. It will burn. H 

is it combustible ? is a combustible gas. 

what experi- Exp. 19. Lift a jar of H from the plate ; 

ments prove that 

h is lighter than keep its mouth downward, and quickly 

air, and that it is A 

combustible? pass a lighted candle upward into it; a 

requires but a comparatively slight force to separate 
from its previous combination. 3d, The quantity of 
H obtained is dependent upon the quantity of acid 
added instead of the quantity of free water. We may 
safely draw the conclusion, then, that the free water 
is not decomposed, but simply acts as a solvent of the 
ZnO, SO 3 (sulphate of oxide of zinc) ; that salt, not 
being soluble in the acid, would remain as a solid in- 
crustation upon the surface of the metal, if water were 
not present to dissolve it, and thus the decomposition 
of the acid would cease. If sulphate of oxide of zinc 
were soluble in sulphuric acid, the gas would be read- 
ily disengaged without the addition of water. 



38 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

when ii bums, slight explosion will take nlace, and the 

what is the color in 

of the name ? gas will burn with a blue flame at the 

What experiment D 

proves this? mouth of the jar, hut the candle will he 
extinguished while immersed in it. Slow- 
ly withdraw the candle downward, and 
it will he relighted hy the hurning gas. 
Thus the candle may be extinguished and 
relighted for several times in the same 

wiu n allow any jar. H will burn itself, but will allow 

body to burn in . . 

it no combustible body to burn in it. " It is 

combustible, but a non-supporter of com- 
bustion." 

wi.at is Exp. 20 ? Exp. 20. Remove a jar of H from the 
water, and place it upon the table with the 
mouth upward ; apply a lighted match to 
the mouth of the jar as quickly as possi- 

wiii water extm- ble. The gas is set on fire. Pour in wa- 
ter ; the flame is not extinguished. 

Exp. 21. Attach a jet or pipe-stem to 
the H washer, as the gas is set free from 
the generator. Wait four or five minutes 
for the gas to expel the air, and apply a 
lighted match to the jet. The gas burns. 
Drop some iron filings into the flame. 
They burn vividly. Hold a small, dry 

is much heat pro- bottle over the flame, and it will soon be 

bums? filled with waterv vapor. "When H burns 

How would YOU . 

prove this? in air, an mtense heat is produced, and 

What is formed 7 x 

when h burns in the resulting compound is water (HO). 
Explain Exp. 22. Exp. 22. Place the broken beak of a 



HYDROGEN. 



39 



retort over the ignited jet of H (a large 
glass tube is better). Pass it downward 
(see Fig. 13) until a penetrating tone is 



Fig. 13. 




what is the tone produced. The tone is not the science of 

called? .-it • • 

music, but the music of science. It is 
what is its cause? probably produced by a series of slight ex- 
plosions, which are unheard unless partly 
confined. 
Explain Fig. H. Exp. 23. Prepare a leaden cannon or 
tin tube, Fig. 14, holding about three gills, 

Fig 14. 




with an orifice near the breech one tenth 






40 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

of an inch in diameter. Fit a long cork 
to the muzzle air-tight. It must pass into 
the tube at least one inch. Now place 
the thumb of the left hand firmly upon 
the orifice, and hold the muzzle over a jet 
How much of the of H (not ignited) until about one third 

air should be dis- . . . , 

placed by the ii? of the air contained in the tube or cannon 
has been displaced by the gas. Keep its 
month downward, with the thumb firmly 
pressed upon the orifice, and force in the 
cork by placing it upon the table and 
pressing the tube down over it. Have a 
slip of paper folded several times lying 
near a lighted candle. Ignite one end of 
it, and, having laid the tube upon the ta- 
ble, remove the thumb, and quickly apply 
the flame to the orifice. A loud report 

to what is the e.\- will follow. Hence two volumes of air 

and one of H form an explosive mixture. 

Exp. 24. Hold a two-ounce phial over 

a jet of H (not ignited) for a short time. 

Turn the mouth upward and applv a 

what causes the flame. A whizzing report will follow, 

whizzing report * " 

which is owing to the successive union 
of the particles of H with the particles 
of of the air. 



Synopsis of H. 
what is said of It is the lightest of all known elements, 

the weight of H' _ . _ 

on account ot winch property it has been 



OXYGEN. 41 

why has it been used for filling balloons. It is a gas which, 

used for filling . . , , 

balloons? when pure, is without color, taste, or 

Has it color ? r 7 . 

Taste ? smeii ? smell. As it is ordinarily formed, it has 

What imparts an J 7 

commonVform- a11 unpleasant odor, which arises from the 
unid with o, impurities it contains. It unites with 
j**; does it to form HQ ( water ) a h is combustible, 

wm c T b support but will not support combustion, and 

combustion ! r • n i • • , t, 

how does it form iorms, with air, an explosive mixture. It 
mixture^' e is not poisonous when breathed, if it is 
when breathed i pure, thoudi it has a peculiar effect upon 

What effect has it ,.,.,. . 

upon the voice ? the voice, a shrill, squeaking tone being 
why would an imparted to it. An animal placed in H 

animal placed in , , t . - , _ _ 

h die 2 would soon die lor w 7 ant 01 0. 



LESSON X. 

"WTi fit i ^ tli p 

equivalent of o i Oxygen. Equivalent 8. Symbol O. 
what mixture is Exp. 25. Pulverize three parts of 

used for obtain- ».-<- T ._ 

ingo? CIO 5 , KO (chlorate ol potassa) with one 

part of MnO 2 (peroxide of manganese), 

and introduce three or four ounces of the 

into what is the mixture into a glass retort containing a 

mixture placed ? . 

pint. The retort should be supported by 
a stand, Fig. 15. Place the retort in a 

How is heat ap- n 

piled? sand-bath, and apply the strong heat of 

what is first driv- a spirit-lamp, which will soon drive over 

en over . . 

the air contained in the retort, and a rap- 
what follows? id disengagement of (oxygen) will soon 



42 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

15. 




How may O be 
collected ? 



Why should the 
beak of the retort 
be removed from 
the water before 
the heat is less- 
ened? 



How may the rn- 
maining materi- 

removed 
from the retort ! 
What were the 
substances used 
for obtaining O ? 



follow, which may be collected over water 
in half-gallon candy-jars, as in Exp. 16.* 
Having obtained the quantity required, 
remove the beak of the retort from the 
water, for if the heat be first removed, the 
gas in the retort will condense, and the 
water will flow in upon the hot glass, 
when it will break in pieces. When the 
retort has cooled, the remaining materials 
may be washed out with water. 

The substances used for obtaining 
were chlorate of potassa and peroxide of 



* The sand-bath consists of a tin, sheet iron, or 
copper vessel, nearly the shape of the bottom of the 
retort, filled with dry sand. Its object is to diffuse 
the heat equally over the surface of the glass, and 
thus lessen the liability of its breaking. 






OXYGEN. 43 

was the peroxide manganese. The peroxide of manganese, 

of manganese de- 

composed? however, has not been decomposed, but 
How did it act ? simply acted upon the chlorate of potassa 
when a body as- by its presence. Where one body assists 

sists to decom- ,-, .-, .,, , . . , r 

pose another to decompose another without itself un- 
undergoing a dergoing a change, the action is called 

change, what is 

the action called? presence or catalytic action. The chlo- 

Can we decom- 
pose chlorate of ra te of potassa may he decomposed and 

potassa without i j 1. 

the man^a^sef * ts set free without the presence of the 
is any more heat manganese, but the heat required would 

required? , , 





C1Q5 


Fig. 16. 


05+0=06 


Draw the diagram 
upon the black- 
board. 









KO K CI 

of what is chloric Chloric acid is composed of CI and O 5 . 

acid composed? 

what is the com- Potassa is composed of one atom of the 

position of po- x 

tassa? metal K and one of 0. When heat is 

What takes place 

when heat is a P - applied to this salt, the CI unites with the 
K, setting free five atoms of from the 
chloric acid and one atom from the potas- 

what new com- sa, while the new compound, KC1 (chlo- 

pound remains in . , _ . . 

the retort? ride oi potassium), remains in the retort, 

with what is it mixed mechanically with the oxide of 

mechanically 

mixed? manganese (MnO 2 ). 

how may a jar of Exp. 26. Remove a jar of from the 
from the piate to plate by placing the mouth of it beneath 

the table for Exp. * r rS in xi 

26? the surlace oi the water and allowing the 

plate to sink. Now slide a piece of tin or 



44 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



If a living mouse 
be placed in O, 
what do hi- ac- 



How will he 



What will foUow? 



What two facts do 
we learn by this 
experiment I 



With what has 
the Creator dilu- 
ted this life-sus- 
taining eub- 



What is the gas 
called? 



glass wrapped with newspaper under the 
mouth of the jar, which being held with 
one hand, the jar may be removed to the 
table and placed in an upright position. 
Introduce a living mouse into 0. and im- 
mediately cover the jar. His actions will 
soon show that he lives faster than he did 
in common air. He will breathe more 
rapidly, and often play ' ; fantastic tricks.*' 
*nms of stupor follow these antics, 
and if not quickly removed from the jar, 
death will ensue. The animal has lived 
too fast. 

In this experiment we not only learn 
that supports animal life, but that, 
when breathed pure, animaLs live too fast. 
Hence a benevolent Creator has diluted 
this life-sustaining substance with four 
times its bulk of a gas which neither sup- 
ports nor destroys, but which is entirely 
passive when breathed. It is called 37- 

E:rjj. 27. Place a piece of roll sulphur 
Fitr 17 of the size of a pea upon a cap- 
sule, winch should be two and 
a half inches high, having a 
cup of copper. (.See Fig. 17.) 
rhe capsule upon a dinner- 
plate filled with water, and ig- 
nite the sulphur. Notice how 



OXYGEN. 45 

How does wAiftiur it burns in air. Now place over it ajar 

bum in air? y» ^ 1 . 

of 0, the mouth of which may rest upon 
the plate beneath the surface of the wa- 
How in o ? ter. The sulphur will burn with increased 

with what will brilliancy, and the whole jar will be filled 
with what has with a beautiful blue fume. S (sulphur) 
ted? s€ 1 has united with in the proportion of 1 

tion? to 2. Hence the resulting compound is 

What is the name \ 

of the resulting SO 2 (sulphurOUS acid). 
compound'? v x 

Exp. 28. Cover a jar of 0, as in Exp. 
26, and place it upon the table. Attach 
a piece of tallow-candle to a wire not less 
than one foot long. Light the candle, 
and allow it to burn for a short time. 

Explain Exp. 28 Extinguish the flame, and introduce it, 
with the wick glowing, into the jar of 0. 
It will burst into vivid combustion with a 
slight report. It may be extinguished and 
relighted in this way for several times in 

what is the result the same jar of 0. The result of the com- 

tion? ' bustion is CO 2 (carbonic acid) and HO 

(water). 

if a piece of the Exp. 29. Instead of the candle, attach 

bark of charcoal .' t- ,-, t t ^i i , 

be ignited and a piece oi the bark 01 charcoal to a wire ; 

plunged into ajar 

ofo, what beau- ignite one corner of it, and plunge it into 

tiful effect is pro- ° 7 r ° 

duced? a j ar f o arranged as in Exp. 28. The 

jar must be kept covered, and the burn- 
ing coal must not come in contact with 
its side. Brilliant stellated scintillations 

with of v ' e will burst from the coal. C (carbon) has 



46 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

in what propor- united with two atoms of 0, forming CO 3 

tion? 7 ° 

Whatisthechem- (carbonic acid), 
ical name of the v ' 

r o & u U nd" g ° om " Exp- 30. Instead of the sulphur in Exp. 

"horu^^'rnav^be 27 > use a P iece of P (phosphorus) half the 

IhelJiphu? f ° f size - The light is very intense, and when 

with what !' s ? lhe it ceases the jar will be filled with a white 

^hai 11 * compound fume, which is PO 6 (phosphoric acid), the 

is formed 1 i, f ,i i j. • 

result oi the combustion, 
now should a Exp. 31. Hold one end of a broken 

watch-spring be 

prepared for watch-spring hi the name of a spirit-lamp 

burning in O ? . , 

until the temper is removed. Now file it 

to a thin, sharp edge. Cut off the upper 

end of a friction match so as to leave a 

clean pine stick a little more than half an 

inch long. Force the sharp edge of the 

metal into the stick nearly a quarter of an 

inch, and it will be ready for use. Have 

How is the jar of a half-gallon candy-iar three quarters fill- 
gas to be ar- G J J . . x 

ranged ? e d with O, the remaining space being oc- 

cupied with water. Transfer this to the 
table as in Exp. 26. Ignite the end of 
the pine stick and immerse it dexterous- 

why should it be ly into the jar, which should be kept cov- 
ered in order to exclude the air. The 

now does the pine stick burns rapidly until it reaches the 

stick burn in ! , i -i • i 

fuzzy edge of the metal, which now takes 
^ ha pVe a s P e P med an as fire, and throws out coruscations of light 
tjie steei takes o ^ surpassing beauty. Hence we learn 

What do we learn n , /-\ • ,i ± r i_ 

from the forego- that is the great supporter of com bus- 
ing experiments . . , , . , , . r ' t 

in o * tion, and also the great sustamer of animal 



OXYGEN. 



47 



What is O in its 
elementary form? 



Is it combustible 1 
Do combustible 
bodies burn in it 1 

How are all ordi- 
nary combus- 
tions produced I 

Of what is tallow 
chiefly coin- 



When a candle 
burns in air, 
with what do 
carbon and hy- 
drogen unite 1 



What is the color 

of the hydrogen 

flame ? 
Does the O of the 

air first unite 

with the II 1 
Why is this ? 

What causes the 
blue appearance 
of the lower por- 
tion of the flame 
of a candle ? 



In what form does 
the carbon pass 
upward 1 



With what does it 
now unite ? 

What is the color 
of the flame pro- 
duced by the car- 
bon 1 

What surrounds 
the outer portion 
of the flame ? 

What is the cause 
of this? 



life. In its elementary form it is a gas 
having neither taste, smell, nor color. It 
is not combustible, though combustible 
bodies burn in it with great brilliancy. 
All ordinary combustions are produced by 
the direct union of with the combusti- 
ble body. Tallow is chiefly composed of 
C (carbon) and H (hydrogen). When a 
candle burns, C and H chemically unite 
with the of the air, forming two com- 
pounds, CO 2 (carbonic acid) and HO (wa- 
ter). H burns, as has already been seen, 
Exp. 19, page 37, with a blue flame ; and 
as the of the air has Figt 18- 

a stronger affinity for 
H than for C, the H 
burns first, which ac- 
counts for the blue ap- 
pearance, a a, Fig. 18, 
of the lower portion of 
the flame. The C, now 
freed from the H, passes ojj 
upward in the form of a 
dark cone, b, and, being 
intensely heated, com- 
bines with and burns 
with a yellow light, c. m 
A pale envelope, d, sur 
rounds the outer portion of the flame, which 
is caused by an incomplete supply of C. 



A 
(k 



■BO 




48 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



When O unites 
with a combusti- 
ble body, what is 
liberated ? 

Upon what does 
the quantity of 
heat depend ? 

How does the 
smith bring a 
large supply of () 
in contact with 
the charcoal ? 

"What is charcoal? 



What is said of 
the diffusion of 
O? 

What part of wa- 
ter is composed 
of it 1 

What of the air? 



Ofrocks and soils? 



When unites with a combustible 
body, heat is liberated, the amount of 
which depends upon the quantity of con- 
sumed. The smith uses the bellows in 
order to bring an additional supply of 
in contact with the charcoal (charcoal is 
nearly pure carbon). 

is the most widely diffused of the ele- 
ments, constituting eight ninths of all the 
waters upon the surface of the earth, and 
about one fifth of the atmosphere. It 
also enters largely into combination with 
other elements to form rocks and soils. 



What is the chem- 
ical name of wa- 
ter ' 

Its equivalent ■ 

Symbol ? 

How tuny a gas- 
bag be liiled with 
O? 



LESSON XL 

Protoxide of Hydrogen (Water). 

Equivalent* 9. Symbol HO. 
Exp. 32. Fill an India-rubber gas-bag 
with by means of the bell-glass and 
pneumatic trough. Fill the bell-glass 
Describe the pro- with the gas, with the stop-cock closed. 

cess in full. 

rress the air from the gas-bag, and attach 
it to the stop-cock. Now open the pas- 
sage from the bell-glass to the gas-bag by 



What is the equiv- * The equivalent of a compound is the sum of the 
poundf a C ° m " equivalents of its elements. The equivalent of O is 
8, and that of H is 1 ; 8 +1 =9, the equivalent of the 
compound protoxide of hydrogen. 



PROTOXIDE OF HYDROGEN, 



49 



turning the stop-cock, and press the bell- 
glass into the water. The superior weight 
of the water will force the gas upward 
into the gas-hag. (See Fig. 19.) The 



Fig. 19. 




Upon what is the stop-cock may now he closed, and the gaS- 
gas-bag to be r ^ ' ° 

placed when mi- hag placed upon a block. Attach the jet, 
which should be elevated about 20°. In- 
troduce the materials for obtaining H into 
the generator, and attach the washer, as 

h Apparatus \l directed in Exp. 16, page 32. Also the 

allowed to stand . , -^ 0i) 00 . ,, ,, 

a short time be- jet, as m hixp. 21, page do. Allow the 

fore igniting the _ 

jet? apparatus to stand lour or rive minutes, 





50 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



in order to expel the air : then ignite the 
H as it issues from the jet. Bring the O 
jet within one eighth of an inch of the 
burning H, and about the same distance 
above the point from whence it issues. 
Place a small piece of board or some oth- 
er weight upon the gas-bag, and open the 
stop-cock. The two gases will now burn 
what does the ap- together. (See Fie. 20.) The apparatus 

paratos thus ar- 
ranged consti- Thus arranged constitutes an oxv-hvdro- 

tute? ° 

gen blow-pipe. 

Fig. 20. 










Exp. 33. Hold in the flame, by means 

of a pair of pliers, a fine piece of copper 

wire not more than an inch long. It will 

flame does° burn° burn with a beautiful green flame. has 

er pro- ^-^ ^-^ CO pp er> 



What 



colored 



PROTOXIDE OF HYDROGEN. 51 

Exp. 34. Instead of the copper, use 
How does iron iron wire. It will burn with scintilla- 
tions. Protoxide and sesquioxide of iron 
are formed by the combination. 

Exp. 35. Treat in the same manner a 
How does piati- piece of platinum wire. It will burn with 
can piatmum be a delicate white light. This metal can 

melted by the 

heat of the most not be burned or even melted by the heat 

powerful fur- ^ 

nace? of the most powerful furnace, yet it burns 

readily in the oxy-hydrogen flame. 

Exp. 36. "Whittle a piece of unslaked 

lime to a sharp point, and hold it in the 

when lime is held flame. A light will be produced nearly 

gen flame, what as dazzling as the sun. It is called "the 

is produced? " if- i »* p • 

what is the light Drummond Light, from its having been 
why is it called discovered by Lieutenant Drummond, of 

the Drummond . 

light i the British navy. 

what takes place Exp. 37. Fill a bell-glass with the 
are mixed togeth- mixed erases, by volume two of H and one 

er, by volume, ° / 

two of h and of 0. Transfer to the gas-bagf, attach the 

one of O, and ° & ' 

cd wuh b themTx- DUDD l e -pip e > an d fill soap-bubbles with the 

ture are ignited? mixed gases.* By the aid of an assistant, 

each bubble may be ignited as it ascends. 

A loud report will follow. The and the 

H contained within the bubble are now 



* Great caution should be observed in performing 
experiments with the mixed gases. The bubble should 
not be ignited until it is at least two feet from the 
pipe, otherwise the fire might be communicated to the 
gas-bag, when the whole would explode at once. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY 
fell 




wktt is the re- chemically united, and the resulting com- 
pound is HO (wrr B Pig. 21.) 

\vnat,tiKii.<!owe Hence we learn that if H is mechanically 
mixed with 0, by volume two of H and 

in what proper- one of 0, it forms an explosive mixture. 

tion 

- - The v nas already been s 

what compound burn same propor 

wnai c&nses the and the resulting" compound is the same 
in both cases. HO (water). The cause 
of the intense heat produced when the 
two gases burn together may be found in 
How much do the the condensation of the gases as they 
ii» unite. Whenever bodies condense, heat 
is - and. during the chemical un- 

ion of H and 0. the re condensed 

three thousand times : that is. three thou- 



CHLORINE. 53 

sand pints of the mixed gases form only- 
one pint of water. 
How many atoms One atom of H unites with one atom 
one atom of o to of to form water; by volume, two of 

form water 1 * 

now much by vol- H and one of ; and bv weight, one of 

ume? ' D ' 

How mucu by H and eight of 0. Now, if one pint of 

weight? •-' 7 r 

weighs eight times more than two pints 
how much heav- of H, then one pint of must weigh six- 

ier, then, is O L . 

thanH? teen times more than one pint of H. 

Therefore is sixteen times heavier than 
H. 



LESSON XII. 
aiem of chlorine ? Chlorine. Equivalent 35. Symbol CI. 

Its symbol? a u 

Exp. 38. Introduce into a small glass 

flask two ounces of HC1 (hydrochloric 

acid), and about one third of an ounce of 

MnO 2 (peroxide of manganese). Adapt a 

Describe the ap- cork to the flask, and also a glass tube 

paratus used in . . 

forming it. bent at right angles ; attach another sim- 

ilar tube by means of an India-rubber con- 
nector, so as to conduct the element set 
free downward. Place the flask in the 
sand-bath, and apply a gentle heat, when 
CI will be rapidly disengaged, and may 

what kind of bot- be collected in six-ounce bottles for use. 

ties are used for , . 

collecting ci i The bottles should have wide mouths and 
ground stoppers. One end of the tube 



54 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



should pass to the bottom of the bottle, 

why does the gas and the gas, being heavier than air, will 

soon expel it. (See Fig. 22.) When the 

Kg. 22. 




How is the bottle 
to be closed when 
filled with it 1 



Why -wave a rag 
wet with ammo- 
nia and alcohol in 
front of the face 
while experi- 
menting with CI? 



What materials 
were used? 



bottle is filled with a light green sub- 
stance, it may be removed, and carefully 
closed with the ground stopper smeared 
with tallow. Another bottle may now be 
filled in a similar manner. A large rag, 
w T et with alcohol and liquid ammonia, con- 
stantly waved in front of the face, will 
prevent any injurious effects w r hich might 
occur from breathing minute portions of 
this noxious element. 

The materials used for obtaining CI 
were MnO 2 (peroxide of manganese) and 
HC1 (hydrochloric acid). "When MnO 2 is 



CHLORINE. 55 

when hydrochio- brought in contact with HC1, the of the 
brought in con- MnO 2 unites with the H of the HC1, and 

tact with perox- 
ide of manga- forms HO ( water), "while the Mn unites 

nese, what be- » ■ : ■" 

wmi eS wha? e does with tne C1 > and forms MnCl 2 (bichloride 
tK CI impound of manganese) . This MnCP readily gives 
how Is one atom U P °ne ^teaa of its CI on applying heat, 
from C1 the 0b bfcMcH when the bichloride of manganese is re- 
nese? manga " duced to a protochloride. MnCP = MnCl; 
+ CI set free. 

Fig. 23. 
Mn02 CI (set free). 



Draw and explain 
Fig. 23. 




2H, 2Ci MnCl 



Exp. 39. Fill a small-necked bottle one 
third full of water, and the remaining 
space with CI. "Wet the thumb, and place 
it firmly upon the mouth of the bottle, and 
shake it briskly. The thumb will be 
why is the thumb pressed into the bottle, because the water 
botS e inExp.4o e has absorbed the CI and produced a vac- 
How much ci uum. "Water absorbs twice its own bulk 
sorb? of CI. This solution is called Chlorine 

What is the solu- 
tion called? water. 

if calico be intro- Exp. 40. Introduce a piece of calico, 

win its colors be slightly moistened with water, into a iar 

affected t - • t 

Does ci act upon of CI ; its color will disappear. Clbleach- 

all animal and ., . . , , , . 1 

vegetable colors? es all animal and vegetable colors. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

what effect does Exp. 41. Drop a few drops of CI water 

or hare r * 

upon ink? into some ink. its color will be discharged. 

k 40. Perfume a white handker- 
chief with otto of rose, and drop son:< 
water upon it. Fold and press it a few 
times between the hands, and the odor 

now does it a« will be destroyed. CI destroys all per- 

upon perfumes * , 

of aii kinds? fumes, whether < or other 

How upon maiari- Malarious matters which communicate 
disease are rendered harmless by it : and 
How may « ■ :ck-room is rendered pleasant by 

room be rendered .,,.,« i i 

pleasant • sprinkling CI water over the noor. 

3. Take as much pulverized me- 
tallic antimony as can be held betv 
Describe the ex- the thumb and finger. Remove the stop- 

periroent 

antimony. per from a bottle of CI, and drop in the 

metal. It will glow as it passes down- 

wnh what wii ward through the tras. The bottle will 

the bottle be fill- 7 , . . . , 

ed? be tilled with a wlute iume. which is 

ame 

hloride of antimonv. CI will unite di- 
tbe metals! with the metals. 

E: p. 44. Put a small piece of gold-leaf 
r - into some I It will soon disap- 

ir. The element CI has united with 
what is the com- the element gold, and formed the com- 
pound chloride of gold. 
Describe the ex- ■">. "Wet a rag with oil of turpen- 

periment with oil _ , . . ~. T 

ofturpentine. tme. and immerse it m a jar of LI. It 
Does ci support will burn spontaneously. Gl supports 
con. but not so pc 



HYPOCHLOROUS ACID. 57 

Exp. 46. Drop a piece of the metal 

Na (sodium), of the size of a pea, into a 

Describe the ex- gill of strong CI water. A combination 

periment with ° . 

sodium. will take place. Evaporate the solution 

nearly to dryness, and allow it to cool ; 

cubical crystals will appear. The element 

with what has CI has united with the element Na and 

whatisthechem- formed NaCI (chloride of sodium), which 

ical name of the . * • 

compound? is common salt. Thus we see that CI 

Its common 

.?r ai ? e? . * unites directly with the metals to form 

With what does J 

ci unite to form sa it s called Chlorides. It is a gas of a 

salts ? D 

^SS cliied ? these light green color, and is about once and 
^opertieTof en a na ^ heavier than air. It has a suffo- 
cating odor, and acts as a deadly poison 
when breathed in any considerable quan- 
what is said of tity. Consumptive patients, however, are 

consumptive pa- J ' . 

tients? said to have obtained temporary relief by 

breathing it in very minute portions, mix- 
ed with a large quantity of air. 



LESSON XIII. 
The symbol of hy- Hypoclilorous Acid. Equivalent 43. 

pochlorous acid ? ~ 7 7 ~ _ 

Its equivalent ? bT/MOOl CIO. 

what are the ma- Exp. 47. Place a few crystals of KO, 

terials used for J 7 

obtaining it? CIO 5 (chlorate of potassa) in a beaker or 

In what are they x L ' 

placed? wine-glass, and cover them with HC1 (hy- 

drochloric acid). The upper part of the 
glass will soon be filled with a gas which 
C 2 



58 FIRST PRFVCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

what color has resembles CI (chlorine), though its color 
is somewhat brighter. It is CIO. 2 at- 
oms of HC1 and 1 atom of KO, CIO 5 are 

Give the fommia converted into 2HO ; KO and 3C10. 

SSSSEta* 2HC1 : KO, CIO 5 = 2HO ; KO ; 3C10. 

upon the black- 
board. Sometimes the <ias explodes spontaneous- 
Does the gas ever ° l L 

explode spoma- W Hence the experimenter would do 

neously ' J l 

well to stand at a little distance while it 
is forming. 

Exp. 48. Wet a pine shaving with spir- 
Expiain Exp. 49. its of turpentine, and immerse it in the 
gas by means of a bent wire. It will 
burst into spontaneous combustion. 

Exp. 49. Fill another glass with CIO, 

as in Exp. 48. Attach a small bit of P 

if phosphorus be (phosphorus) to the end of a bent wire, 

brought in con- , . . 

tart with cio, and immerse it in the gas. A spontane- 

Whflt phonoin.- 

mm ^presented? US CXplOSlOll Will lolloW. 

oive the symbol Chlorous Acid. Equivalent 67. Sy?n- 

and equivalent of * ^ 

chlorous acid. 00 [ QlOK 

what materials Exp. 50. Use SO 3 , HO (sulphuric acid), 
taininc ciiiorous instead of HC1 (hydrochloric acid), as in 

add; V " n 

Exp. 47. The wine-glass will be filled 
what is its color « in a short time with a gas of a still bright- 
whv should the er color than CIO (hvpochlorous acid). It 

experimenter use rar\A ■, • i • ■, ■ , 

great caution m is CIO 4 , which is very explosive, and 

forming chlorous l 

acid? should be used with great caution. 

Exp. 51. Immerse a piece of calico, 
moistened with a little water, in CIO 4 



CHLORIC ACID. 59 

what is said of (chlorous acid). It will soon be bleached. 
in this gas ? CI (chlorine), CIO (hypochlorous acid), and 

What is the pecu- v " . 

liar characteris- CIO 4 (chlorous acid), possess powerful 
a?" d V r " cm ° TGXXS bleaching properties. 

The symbol and Chloric Acid. Equivalent 75. Sym- 

equivalent of m r\* 

chloric acid? bol CIO 5 . 

Exp. 52. Dissolve some chlorate of 

baryta in water, and dilute some sulphuric 

How is chloric acid with two parts of water, and add it 

acid obtained ? . 

gradually to the first solution. A white 
powder w r ill be thrown down, w T hich is sul- 
phate of baryta. The CIO 5 is set free, and 
of what is chio- is held in solution. Chlorate of baryta is 
composed? ' composed of chloric acid and baryta. Sul- 
wwch exhibits phuric acid has a stronger affinity for the 

the stronger af-f^ 

rinity for the ba- baryta than has the chloric acid, and, by 

ryta, the sulphur- J . . J 

icorthe chloric single elective affinity, the sulphuric acid 
unites w T ith the baryta, while the chlo- 

which acid is nb- ric acid is liberated. Sulphuric acid = 
SO 3 , HO. Chlorate of baryta = BaO, CIO 5 . 

Give the formula BaO, CIO 5 ; SO 3 , HO = BaO, SO 3 ; HO; 

upon the black- 

board. CIO 5 . CIO 5 (chloric acid),' in this dilute 

If chloric acid, in _ x ' 

this dilute state, state, if allowed to evaporate spontaneous- 

is allowed to l x 

evaporate spon- \y "vvill eventually become a yellowish 

taneously, what J ' J J 

bec U ome e ' entualiy ou y nc l m d, when it is said to be concen- 
trated, 
if a slip of news- Exp. 53. Dip a slip of newspaper into 
into concemra- concentrated CIO 5 . In a short time it 

ted chloric acid, 

what follows? will burn. CIO 5 parts with some of its 



60 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

what Buna the 0. which combines with the combustible 

combustion' , , , 

Does this arii matter, 1 his acid does not ] — ssbleacn- 

- bleach- . ,. ; ., i >• 

peitiesi ing properties like the preceding com- 
pounds of CI. 

what is the syin- p cr . or Hypcrchloric Acid. Equivalent 

bol of perci, ^' £ a 

£%«,*- , 91- Symbol CIO 1 . 

what does this This acid resembles the preceding in 
properties, with the exception that its af- 
finities arc much stronger. None of the 
Are the com- compounds of CI are at present well un- 
understood \ derstood. An intermediate acid, called 
what ia mu of hvpochloric acid. CIO 3 , partially described 

hvpochloricacid.' , -»r-n i i • i 

.Mil ion. has been omitted on account 
existence of its existence not having been well es- 

been well estab- a 

Hshed- tablished. 






LESSON XIV. 
e equiva- Nitrogen {Azote). Equivalent 14. 

lent and svmbol ^ , 7 ,_ 

of nitrogen Pi/mOOl JS . 

How is n obtairr Exp. 54. Place a capsule (Pier. 17) 

ed ? 

upon a soup plate filled with water. Dry 
a small piece of P (phosphorus) carefully 
■ een blotting-paper, and lay it upon 
Describe Exp. 54. the capsule. Ignite it, and quickry invert 
over it a half-gallon candy-jar. which will 
soon be rilled with dense white fumes. P 
has united with the of the air contained 



NITROGEN. 61 

in the jar, and formed PO 5 (phosphoric 

acid), while the N (nitrogen) of the air is 

left free. The air contained in the jar 

was the air con- was not a chemical compound, hut a me- 

a chemical com- chanical mixture. Hence the following 

pound ?••',.,: -, . 

diagram will only show the separation of 



Fig. 24. 




Explain the differ- 
ence between a 
chemical com- 
pound and a me- 
chanical mixture. 



what becomes of a mechanical mixture. The white fume 

the white fume . 

in the jar? will soon be absorbed by the water in the 

what portion of plate, when about four fifths of the jar 

the jar will be x ^ 

filled with water, w ill be filled with a colorless gas, the oth- 

and what with . . 

s as - er fifth being occupied with water. 

Exp. 55. Place the jar containing the 
$$ in an upright position upon the table, 
and lower into it a lighted candle. The 

Does nitrogen Combustion will Cease. N does not SUp- 
support combus- _ . 

tion? port combustion. 

Exp. 56. Fill a smaller jar with N by 
pouring the gas upward into it under wa- 
ter. The receiving jar should first be fill- 
ed with water, and raised with the mouth 

How may gases downward until its mouth is near the sur- 

be transferred . . . 

from one jar to face. The iar containing the N may now 

another? J ° J 

be depressed in the water, and its mouth 
so directed that the gas will escape into 
the smaller jar. (See Fig. 25.) 



62 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

Fig. 25. 




Does nitrogen 
support respira- 
tion ! 

liow was this 
proved ' 

Does the animal 
die from the pois- 
onous effects of 
the gas ! 

What name was 
improperly ap- 
plied to this ele- 
ment? 



How much nitro- 
gen do we con- 
stantly breathe I 



JJ.rp. 57. Drop a living mouse into the 
jar filled with N. He will soon die. N 
does not support respiration. The animal 
does not die, however, from any poisonous 
effects of the gas, hut from a want of 0. 
Hence the name azote (life destroyer), "by 
which this element was formerly called, 
was improperly applied. We are con- 
stantly breathing about four times as 
much N as 0, without witnessing any 
poisonous effects from it. N is negative 
or passive in its effect upon the animal 
economy. All animals die when deprived 
of ; and in crowded assemblies and un- 
ventilated sleeping apartments, the air 



PROTOXIDE OF NITROGEX. 63 

what observation gradually becomes poor in from the 

is made of crowd- . . 

ed assemblies quantity ot it consumed in breathing. 

and unventilated , , , 

sleeping apart- Air should not be breathed a second time. 

ments ? 

sbouid air be \^ e sna n hereafter see that the 0, when 

breathed a sec- 
ond time ? exhaled, has entered into a combination 

in which it acts as a deadly poison when 

brought in contact w T ith the lungs. Hence 

what, then, do we we learn that N is a colorless gas having 

learn of nitrogen? . . x . . . 

negative properties, it is neither com- 
bustible, a supporter of combustion, nor a 
supporter of animal life. It constitutes 
about four fifths of the bulk of the atmo- 
sphere. 



LESSON XV. 

wnatistheequiv- Protoxide of Nitrogen, or Exhilarat- 
ofmtrosen?' ins: Gas. Equivalent 22. Symbol 

Its symbol? ,° 

NO. 

Exp. 58. Introduce two ounces of XH 3 , 

NO 5 (nitrate of ammonia) into a pint glass 

How is it obtain- retort, arranged as in the formation of 0, 

ed ? 

page 42, Fig. 15. Apply heat by means 

of the spirit-lamp and sand-bath. First 

what erst takes the salt will melt, ebullition will follow, 

salt? " and when the temperature is sufficiently 

What follows? i J 

high, a rapid decomposition will take 
ofwhatisthesait place. The salt is composed of nitric 

composed? * 

acid and ammonia. 




F1KST PRINCIPLES MISTRY. 

Am moni a = XH : . 



Explain tbe 6e- 



3HO 

Th from xhi red 

with, the i boos 

and formed 3H0 ( iiile the two 

a: - N united wit]. rernain- 

ii:_ formed 2X0 (protox- 

ide of niti _ 

Ifalicfetedeaadk K NO in- 

gwMaaig of «*- stead of 0. The candle will be relighted. 
ink w m- but will not bum so brilliantly as in 0. 

creased? 

combustion more vividly 
than air. 

I. Place a mouse in ajar of 
He will exhibit signs of pleasure. 
R*pia*i Ex*, ft. <-- ta animal life. 

L Fill a gas-bag. contain:: _ 

and furnished with a 
mouth-piece and stop-cock, with IK 
riatkesa*- means of the bell s nd pneumatic 

trough.* Permit 

sc: nt of an a perament to 

inhale the g - -ould be done in 

least two hocr- s used, in order to absorb its 



PROTOXIDE OF NITROGEN. 65 

the following manner : The student should 
exhaust lus lungs of all air, hold his nose, 
and fill his lungs from the gas-bag. The 
gas should he breathed out and in four or 
five times, in order to obtain its happiest 

What effects are effects. A SfloW of excitement Will Over- 
produced upon , 

the system? spread the whole system, borne laugh 
immoderately, others play the orator, 
while others pass through with some de- 
votional exercise. A few subjects have 
been found, who, when under the influ- 
ence of NO, exhibited pugilistic propen- 
sities, particularly when the gas was im- 
pure, or when the subject's mind had been 
previously excited. The opinion, howev- 

Does the gas ai- er, that the gas invariably develops the 

-wravs develop the . 

leading traits of leading traits in the character of the per- 

character of the '- J *■ 

person who in- son w ho inhales it is incorrect, as the sub- 

hales it ? J 

Does the subject ject never entirely loses consciousness 

entirely lose con- , . , . . n ~ . 

sciousness? when properly under its influence, feir 
Give the expen- Humphrey Davy breathed it for five min- 

ment of Sir H. r J J 

nav^-. utes from a gas-bag containing nine gal- 

lons without losing his consciousness. All 
what class of per- persons, except those who constantly stim- 

sons are not af- . . . ... 

fected by breath- uiate with opium or spirit uous liquors, are 
powerfully excited by breathing NO for 
the space of about thirty seconds. Per- 
sons of plethoric habit should not inhale 

Whv should not .-, .' . . . -. 

persons of pie- the gas, as it excites an increased circu- 
late jms gas ? latioii of the blood. NO (protoxide of ni- 



66 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

trogen). as we have seen, is a colorless 

gas. It has a sweet taste, supports com- 

what properties bustion and animal life, but will not burn 

dereioped by the itself. "When animals breathe it. thev 

foregoing expert- 

menis? live laster than when breathing common 

air, as they obtain more of the life princi- 
ple. 

G iei e t iSd 3SS Binoxide of Xitrogcn. or Nitric O 
ofbm^de-ofni. Equivalent 30. %nW JO". 

j£.r/?. 62. Place some copper shps. or a 

:it, in a bottle containing four or five 

ounces, to which has been adapted a cork 

and bent tube. Pour in an ounce of N 

How is this com- HO (nitric acid) and one fourth the nuan- 

pound obtained ! . , .. 

tity ot H».> (water). NO 3 will be set free 
with effervescence, which may be collect- 
ed in a small glass jar over water. Slide 
the jar, when filled, upon a plate filled with 
water, and transfer to the table for use. 

tSg. 27. 



Explain Fig. 27. 




: 



One equivalent of the ~S0 5 (nitric acid) is 
decomposed. An atom of Cu unites with 
three atoms of its 0, forming CuO 3 (ter- 
oxide of copper . while one atom of NO 3 
(binoxide of nitrogen) is set free. An un- 



MTRIC ACID. 67 

decomposed atom of NO 5 now combines 
with the CuO 3 thus formed, and the ac- 
tion is repeated until some of the materi- 
als are exhausted. 

Exp. 63. Gradually admit some air 
into a jar of NO 2 . Dense reddish fumes 

Explain Exp. 63. will soon fill the jar. The NO 2 has elect- 
ed two more atoms of from the admit- 
ted air, and formed NO 4 (nitrous acid). 
NO 3 (hyponitrous acid), at common tem- 

what is the color peratures, is a bright green volatile liquid, 

of hyponitrous . t*.» i in 

acid? but its properties are little known. All 

Are its properties -, . -, i c r\ i ->- / -,1 

weii known; the chemical compounds 01 (J and Si (with 

What compounds L V 

of o and x are the exception of NO) are deadly poisons 

deadly poisons L ' J r 

when breathed « ^ Y l ien breathed. 



LESSON XVI. 
V\ &t iS A he S ^ rm " Nitric Acid. Equivalent 63. Symbol 

hoi and equiva- ^ & 

The symbol of this compound, if it 

could be obtained in the dry state, would 

what v.-ouid its be NO 5 , and its equivalent would be -54. 

cbuid be obtained It has never vet been obtained in this 

in the drv state ! ..',,,., 

state, but it is prooable it thus exists, and 
will hereafter be thus obtained. Dry or 
anhydrous nitrate of potassa or ammonia 
is composed of NO 5 , IvO, or N0 5 NH 3 . 
But the NO 5 has not yet been separated 



68 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

from either of these bases without the 
presence of water, one equivalent of which 
it always takes with it, when its formula 
is NO 5 , HO. 

Exp. 64. Introduce into a half-pint tu- 

iiow is nitric acid bulated gloss retort one ounce of NO 5 , KO 
(nitrate of potassa or saltpetre), and two 
ounces of S0 3 HO (sulphuric acid). The 
beak of the retort should be adapted to a 
half-pint receiver by means of a perforated 

Describe the a P - cork. The upper mouth of the receiver 
should be closed by a cork, through which 
a small glass tube should pass quite to 
the bottom. This tube is called a safety 

what is a safety- tube. Surround the receiver with cold 

tube i. 

water, and apply a gentle heat to the re- 
when heat is ap- tort by means of the sand-bath and spirit- 

plied, what \h de- . . 

composed? lamp. Decomposition of the KO, ISO 5 
(nitrate of potassa) will take place. KO, 

Give the formula v * ' r ' 

of the substances NO 5 ; 2S0 3 HO are resolved into 2>S0 3 , 

used before they 

are appi.ed. KO j NO 5 , HO ; HO. The stronger, SO 3 , 

Jive it afterward. ' ' D ? 7 



Give it afterward. 



Draw and explain 
the diagram. 



Fig. 28. 

N05 HO 




2SO--»HO KO, 2S03; HO 

as the rcos is P et elects the KO, and the NO 5 is set free, to- 

does it take with gether with an equivalent of HO (water). 

One equivalent or atom of HO remains 

thc a retort'? ulJ ° with the KO, 2S0 3 in the retort, though 



NITRIC ACID. 69 

it is not chemically united. NO 5 , HO 
(nitric acid) must be kept in ground-stop- 
per bottles. 

Exp. 65. Add to half an ounce of wa- 
Expiain Exp. 65. ter three drops of NO 5 , HO, into which 
what effect do solution dip a piece of litmus paper.* It 

well-marked ac- ._, .-_ 

ids always pro- will be changed irom blue to red. Well- 

duce upon litmus . 

paper? marked acids always produce this result. 

Exp. 66. Place a few leaden shot in a 

if nitric acid be wine-glass, and cover them with water. 

brought in con- 

tact with lead, Add twice the quantity of N0 5 HO (nitric 

what follows ? : t . 

is the lead (Pb) acid). A reddish fume of a suffocating 

dissolved ? ' ° 

odor will be disengaged, which is NO 4 

How much o from (nitrous acid). One atom of from the 

combines with NO 5 has united with the Pb (lead), and 

the lead? , v n 

what is the com- formed PbO (protoxide of lead). An un- 

pound called? v 

with what does decomposed equivalent of NO united with 

an undecom- x i -i i i • 

posed equivalent the oxide thus formed and dissolved it, 

of nitric acid now 

unite? forming PbO, NO 5 (nitrate of protoxide 

of lead). This latter compound is not sol- 
uble in the acid, but is soluble in water. 

Fig. 29. 



Explain the figure. 




PbO, NO' ; 2HO 



Hence, if no water were present, it would 

* For the preparation of litmus paper, see p. 136. 



r:?.s7 ?f.:n::7lis ;r :hem:^t?.v 



witt was wsier remain as a solid 

to the action- iation of H 

droge:. 

7. Pulverize some charcoal, and 
dr oe a spoonfu 

aai be it in a a small i 

™«j <*»- to a r 
■« m pre- drachm or 

the a<: £ ind at a the 

acid npo: iicoal. A combustion 

dense poisonous fames, which i 

oxic 

3. Instea. ViarcoaL use a 




rf :. - 



:- :. _-•- -■-"■' It::"-* :' - :: > .::'.;.":-.- F.-.F.-: . A:.::::- 
er spontaneous combust. 

i solution of 
Kv (carbona* add 

r -.:.:. -rr: i NO 5 , HO oitTic acid) nnti] efiervesoenoe 
ceases. Place I on in the 

p- a -^rarm pV 
fcM ed. «»d by appear. Thev arc .urate of 

nit: 



ri 



::•: 




KO. CO* 



NITRIC ACID. 71 

Exp. 70. In a Wedgwood mortar place 

what are the ma- six parts by weight of KO, NO 5 (nitrate 

forming gunpow- of potassa), one part of S (sulphur), and 

der ? 

one of C (carbon, charcoal) : pulverize the 
whole thoroughly for ten minutes. Now 
add water sufficient to form a paste, and 
mix thoroughly. Perforate a piece of tin 

Describe the pro- or lead, and press the paste through. Al- 
low the threads to fall upon some paper, 
and when partly dry, rub the mass gently 
with the fingers, and small grains will be 
formed, which are gunpoivder. 

Exp. 71. Place some gunpowder upon 
a capsule, and ignite it by means of a red- 

when powder is hot wire or glowing coal. The solid pow- 
what is the solid der is converted into gases, with the ex- 
ception of a small residue. The gases are 

what names are CO 2 (carbonic acid), and N (nitrogen), 

applied to these v n v D ' 

gases ? which now occupy a much greater space 

Give their sym- L J 

hois and equiva- than when in the solid form. Hence the 

lents. 

what causes the explosion. Formula : 

explosion 1 r 

Give the formula 3C j S \ KO, N0 5 = KS: 3C0 2 J N. 

before and after 
the explosion. 



Fig. 31. 



Draw and explain 
the figure. 



3C 


3C02 


S 


^ 


/ si^ -^ 







KO, NOs 



72 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHE' 



LESSON XVII. 
"uki ££&**& Ammonia. Equivalent 17. Symbol 

ammonia » ~YJJ 

re a cork with a round 

file, and insert a small _ sa tube bent 

gkt angles. Fit the cork to a 

lar_ si-tube, into which introduce one 

D«cribe the ex- drachm of XH 3 , HC1 (sal ammonia- 

penment for o v - v 

taming ammo- gether with an equal quantity of CaO. 
HO (slaked lime). conducting 

tube to the bottom of a small phial con- 
taining half a drachm of HO (wa 
Apply heat to the test-tube, and NH? will 
be set free. The water in the phial, if 

How much of the kept cold, will absorb near seven hundred 

gas will be ab- 
sorbed by eoid ti wn bulk of the ^as. Tl. 

water' 

what is the soiu- lution is called Aq A wnia, and its 

tion called! 

common name is Spirits of Hartshorn. 
formoia Formula: NH 3 , HC1 : CaO. HO=CaCl; 

before and aAer 

the deeompo< 2H< , ■ yjj: set £r ee m lts oraseOUS form. 

tion. - 

is ammonia an 73. Drop some hquid (aqua) am- 

monia upon red test-paper.* It will be 
is u an alkali ? changed to blue. All alkalies produce 

Uow was this as- " _ mm \i t 

cenained! this effect i hence AH : is an alkali. 

* For making red test-paper, see p. 136. 






CARBON. 73 

now are harts- Equal parts of slaked lime and sal ammo- 

horn bottles coin- . • . 

moniy prepared ? mac form the compound contained m the 
hartshorn bottles of the shops. 

aient of carbon? Carbon. Equivalent 6. Symbol C. 

Its symbol ? 

Exp. 74. Fold a piece of filtering-pa- 
per so as to fit it into a funnel. Fill it two 
thirds full of finely-pulverized C (char- 
coal). Discolor some water with ink, 
How does char- and filter it through the C. It will he 

coal affect vari- t i i i r\ i i i\ i i 

ous coloring mat- rendered colorless. L (charcoal) absorbs 
why do sugar re- various coloring matters, which property 

liners use it? _ . „ , r 

renders it uselul to sugar refiners. 

Exp. 16. Pour half a bushel of char- 
if charcoal be coal into a cistern containing nauseous 

poured into a cis- 
tern of nauseous water. "Within two or three days the 

water, what ^ 

takes place? water will be deprived of its disagreeable 

odor. The charcoal has absorbed the un- 

To what other pleasant gases. A cellar containing de- 
purpose has . 
charcoal been ap- caying vegetable matter maybe rendered 

is charcoal one of pleasant by the presence of charcoal. C 

ton ? (carbon), when crystallized, forms the dia- 

When carbon is v ' J . 

crystallized, mond. Charcoal is nearly pure C in a 

what is it called ? . 

what of soot and state of minute division. Soot, or lamp- 
coke? ' r 
Biack-iead or black, and coke, are also nearly pure C. 

plumbago? . J l 

Plumbago, or black lead, is another form 

of C, containing a slight quantity of iron, 

For what is this and is extensively used for reducing fric- 

substance exten- ... 

siveiyused? tion in machinery, and in the manufac- 
ture of drawing pencils. Crucibles are 

D 



74 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

why arc crucibles sometimes made of plumbago on account 

made of plum 1 a- 7 

of its property of withstanding an mr- 

when exposed to heat. Charcoal will not decay when ex- 
air or water, will . • 

charcoal decay i posed to air or water. Hence posts which 

have been charred never decay. It is 

of said that the stakes* driven into the hed 

• mi 

e bed or of the River Thames bv the Britons in 
the year 55 B.C., to prevent its pas 
by Julius Ccrsar, when discovered a few 
inee, were in a perfect state of pres- 
to ervation from having been charred. Meat 
| acked in charcoal dust may be preserved 
fresh for several weeks in warm weather. 



Carbonic Oxide. Equivalent 14. 
Symbol CO. 

This compound is always formed when 
wood is bmned with an incomplete sup- 
ply of air. "When charcoal has burned for 
some time in air, and ashes have accumu- 
lated upon the surface so as to prevent a 
complete supply of 0, CO (carbonic oxide) 
is invariably formed. The same result 
takes place when the damper of a stove is 

Does i i losed. CO is a gas which possesses very 

ii i ii i 
poisonous properties, and when breathed 

much diluted with air, produces drowsi- 
ness, giddiness, and sometimes fainting. 
diinjUwitbair! The sleepy sensation experienced when 

* Grey. 



CARBONIC ACID. 75 

now is the sitting by a warm stove in winter, is us- 
tiou "' produced ually produced by breathing small por- 

when sitting by J l . J D . r 

a hot stove m tions of CO mixed with. air. Rooms 

winter ? 

should rooms should never be heated by a chafinsr-disli 

ever be heated J ~ 

dTSof^hicoaf? °f charcoal, as two poisonous gases are 
Tufgars^reset formed by this combustion. First, before 
coTibuniJina?^ the accumulation of ashes, CO 2 (carbonic 
acid) is formed, after which CO (carbonic 
oxide). Many valuable lives have been 
sacrificed upon the altar of ignorance con- 
nected with these two noxious compounds, 
when persons Persons, when attempting to lodge in 

lodge in rooms . L V r i 

heated by burn- rooms warmed by burninsr charcoal, ieel 

ing charcoal, 

what is the first an indescribable inclination to sleep, into 

sensation pro- L 

duced? which state they soon pass ; and if not 

if fresh air is not speedily relieved by the admission of fresh 

admitted, what . , , 

ensues? air, death ensues. 



LESSON XVIIL 
hStfcSSJc Carbonic Acid, Equivalent 22. Sym- 

Also its symbol? °° l ^ O 2 . 

Exp. 76. Introduce an ounce of TNaO, 
2C0 2 (bicarbonate of soda) into the hy- 
drogen generator, and add two ounces of 
How is this com- water. Pour through the funnel-tube a 
small portion of SO 3 , HO (sulphuric acid). 
CO 2 will be set tree with effervescence, 
and may be collected as in Exp. 16, page 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OP CHEMISTRY. 

-- - - --..■- ■■: :>"--. -j.:o ; : >o 3 , ho=h«o, so*; 

-,, ■-. . ,- - 

a* *..,■, »- H The stror.. 

mm 

elects 1 . and drives off* the 

_ aseous form. 



>"»■-;■"■: : - 



the 




eo 

ace a jar of CO 2 (carbonic 
acid) upon the table, with its month up- 
ward, and lower into it a lighted candle. 
The flame will be extinguished. 
will not support combustion, nor will it 

wa&taniuetr burn itself. 

E^aEi?.^ - ot the CO* from the jar 

upon a lighted candle. The combustion 
h cav P Mi than air. 
Exp. 79. Drop a living mouse into a 
jar of CO. Life will apparently cease. 
Remove him quickly, and place him in a 
jar of O. His life will be restored, 
(carbonic acid) destroys animal life, and 
O (oxygen) sustain 

Exp. 80. Place a spoonful of lime in a 
pint of rain water, and allow it to stand 
for twenty-four hours, during which time 
agitate the liquid several times. Pour 
off the clean solution carerally into a 




tion ' 



CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. 77 

How would you ture use. Breathe into a wine-slass con- 
show that car- ... , 

bonic acid is pro- taining lime-water, by means of a glass 

duced by respira- ° * * ° 

tube, for some time. It will gradually 
assume a milky appearance. Insoluble 
CaO, CO 2 (carbonate of lime) is formed, 
wMch shows that CO 2 (carbonic acid) is 
produced by breathing — respiration. 



What is the sym- 
bol of carburet- 
ted hydrogen I 

Its equivalent J 



Carburetted Hydrogen. Equivalent 
28. Symbol C*H*. 
Exp. 81. Adapt a pipe-stem to a cork 
which fits a large test-tube. Place half 
How may tws gas an ounce or less of mineral coal in the 

be easily obtain- , _ .. 1 

edi test-tube, press in the cork, and apply 

heat. C 4 H 4 or CH (carburetted hydro- 
gen) will soon be forced through the pipe- 
what is the color stem. Ignite it. It burns with a white 

of its flame? ' . . . . 

is it city gas? light. This is common city gas, mixed 
with impurities. 

Exp. 82. Introduce one and a half flu- 
id ounces of alcohol, and three of strong 
SO 3 , HO (sulphuric acid) into a pint re- 

Expiain Exp. 82. tort, and apply a gentle heat. At first 
the solution assumes a black appearance, 
but when the temperature is sufficiently 
high, a rapid decomposition follows, with 

Tngagfdl is dis " the disengagement of C 4 H 4 (carburetted 

Of what is alcohol -it \ a i i i • j r 

composed? hydrogen). Alcohol is composed oi 
SSf^Srmuia C 4 H 6 2 . Sulphuric acid of SO 3 , HO. 
" 2S0 3 HO ; C 4 H 6 2 = 2S0 3 , HO : 2HO ; 



illustra iv? of the 
decomnosition. 



78 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

OH 4 . The eas may be collected over 

be collected .' ° 

water, which absorbs only about one 
eighth of its own volume of it. 

J3. Fill a bell glass with C l H l 
(carburetted hydrogen), and transfer to 
the gas-bag. Attach the jet, and by 
means of a weight, force out the gas, 
or what color is which may be ignited. It burns with a 
m- beautiful white light. It is the same gas 
that was formed by Lxp. 81, but contains 
bs imparities, from having been passed 
iirough water. The result of the com- 
bustion of 0*H 4 in air ia OO 2 (carbonic 
acid) and HO (water). C'lV' has been 
called olefiant gas, because when mixed 
with its own volume of CI (chlorine) the 
two gases disappear, and an oily liquid is 
formed. 

33. 
CH C02 



The diairmm. Fig. 
33. 




HO 



- Li srlit Ccirburetted. Hydrogen. Erjuiv- 

d hvdro- ° " 1 

alent S. Symbol CH. 
I T%Si- This gas is generated spontaneously in 
when "mixed manv coal-beds, and when mixed with 
air it is commonly called r ire-damp, 



CYANOGEN. 7v 

wuy was it a ter- which was a terror to the miners, on ac- 

ror to the min- 

ers : count of its explosive properties, until Sir 

who has done Humphrey Davy invented the safety- 
much to obviate -i • i • • i -i 

the danger ? lamp, which is simply an oil-lamp sur- 

What is the con- L ? l J r * 

S rU Da° n 's 0f s4e r roun ded "by wire-gauze, which prevents 

ty-iamp. ^he f[ ame f r0 m contact with the gas. 

when vegetable CH 2 and a small quantity of CO 2 are al- 

matter decays . ,- _ 

under water, ways formed when vegetable matter de- 

what gases are J 

formed? cays under water, 

if the muddy tot- Exp. 84. Disturb the muddy bottom 

torn of a shallow »''■»,■, ■, • t-> i i i 

pond be disturb- oi a shallow pond m summer, .Bubbles 

ed, what body 

wm arise to the f o-as will arise to the surface, which 

surface of the ° # 7 

A Wat l r ■ u uv, may be collected in iars, or ignited upon 

Are these bubbles J J 7 ° r 

combustible ? t k e sur f ace f the water, when they will 
when they burn, burn w T ith a yellow light. The result of 

what is the re- . . ~ ~ 9 -. . 

suit of the com- the combustion is C0 Z (carbonic acid) and 

bustion ? N ' 

HO (water). CH 2 ; 4 from the air= 
CO 2 ; 2H0. 



Gh-e the equiva- Cyanogen. Equivalent 26. Symbol 

lent and symbol 

of cyanogen. G iV 0?* C?/. 

is it an element or This compound of C and N plays the 

a compound ? 

Does it play the part of an element, and its most conven- 

part of an ele- x 
• ment 1 
What is the most 

convenient sym- elements only unite with elements, and 



ient symbol is Cy. As a general rule, 



bol of cyanogen 

Trai rule? 6 sen " compound bodies with compounds. Cy 
^pouVever unhe ^ s an exception to this, as it combines 



^ with several of the elements separately. 



single elements 



80 FIRST FRIXCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



^SKrfggg^ Hydrocyanic Acid (Prvssic Acid). 
jSJSS! Equivalent 27. %f»6o/ CyH 

with whBi does The compound body Cy (cyanogen) 

the compound L i -> i 

body ^ cyanogen unites with the simple body H (hydro- 
what is said of gen), and forms the most vigorous of all 

the compound . 

thus fori... <i .' the poisons, one drop of the liquid upon 
How may a smaii the tongue of a dog being sufficient to 

animal be n . 

utToyed with this produce death in a lew seconds. This 

poison ! 

What caution is and the preceding compound should be 
mentioned ! 

experimented with only by experienced 
chemists. 



LESSON XIX. 
aient of sulphur! Sulphur. Equivalent 16. Symbol S. 

Its symbol ! 

Exp. 85. Fill a test-tube half full of 
flowers of S (sulphur). Heat it until it 
melts. It is now liquid. Pour one half 
of it into cold water. It is now solid. 
Give Exp. 65 in Heat the remainder still more strongly, 
and it will be converted into vapor. Con- 
duct this vapor into a cold vessel, and it 
will be condensed into Flowers of S. 
in how many Bodies exist in one of three states, the 
exist; ' liquid, the solid, or the gaseous. S, by 

What are they . " 

what has sulphur this experiment, is made to assume all 

been made to as- 

sume? three. 

Exp. 86. Place an ounce and a half of 



SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. 81 

iron filings and an ounce of flowers of S 

How may sui- in a crucible, which should be supplied 

formed artificial* with a cover, and heated to redness. The 

ly] 

S will soon unite with the Fe (iron), form- 
ia this compound ing FeS (sulphuret of iron). This com- 

ever found free in . 

nature? pound is found in great abundance in na- 

what names have ture, and is sometimes called iron pyrites, 

been applied to '■ . ■ 

u? at others fooVs gold. It has, when found 

what metai does native, a lustre very much resembling this 

it resemble ? 

metal. 



Give the symbol Sulphuretted Hydrogen (Hydrosul- 

of sulphuretted 

hydrogen. phuric Acid). Equivalent 17. 

Its equivalent. •* ' 

Symbol HS. 

Exp. 87. Introduce half an ounce of 

FeS (sulphuret of iron) into a chemical 

How may this flask holding half a pint, to which has 

tained ? been adapted a cork and bent tube ; add 

half an ounce of HO (water) and an ounce 

of SO 3 , HO (sulphuric acid). Apply a gen- 

what is its odor? tie heat, and a gas having the odor of rot- 
is it a gas. liquid, . in , ,. . 
or solid? ten eggs will be disengaged. It is HS 

(sulphuretted hydrogen). 

Exp. 88. Conduct HS as it is set free 

into a ground-stopper bottle containing 

two ounces, which should be filled half 

full of HO (water). The tube should 

scarcely pass beneath the surface. When 

How much of the the water has absorbed three times its 

absorb ' own bulk of HS, it will be saturated ; that 

D2 



IB FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

will receive no more. The solution 
ia called Sulphuretted Hydrogen II" 

I. Place a bright five cent piece, 
a piece of lead, and a piece of iron, upon 
the table. Drop a single drop of the solu- 
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen upon each, 
mustm: V black AgS (sulphuret of silver) will be 

formed upon the coin, a black PbS (sul- 
phuret of lead) upon the lead, but the iron 
will remain untarnished. In the case of 
oivc the formulas the Ag (silver), HS : Ag=AgS; B 
board. free. In the case of the Pb (lead). HS : 

Fb~PbS; H set free. Or. by diagram, 
thus : 

34. 
HS 



Also the 
£rams. 




AgS 



Fig. 35. 
HS 



Pb Pb S 



These experiments show that S has a 
stronger affinity for silver and lead than 
Ha? sulphur an af- for iron. It has more or less affinity for 
an the metals''' nearly all the metals. 

Exp. 90. Treat solutions of acetate of 

Explain Exp. 90. lead and nitrate of silver with a solution 

of HS (sulphuretted hydrogen). A black 



SULPHUROUS ACID. 83 

what is formed? sulphuret of the metal will be formed in 
both cases. 

^ntmlSbo'i Hyposulphurous Acid. Equivalent 24. 
f us 11 idf pllur - Symbol SO. 

Does tins com- This compound is not known in the 
separate state * separate state, but its existence is estab- 
witiiwhatisitai- lished. It is always found in contact 
with a salifiable base, as TsiaO (soda). 



ways found in 
contact ? 



c Iem and S Sulphurous Acid, Equivalent 32. 

or . d sulphurous Symbol SO 2 . 

Exp. 91. The apparatus for obtaining 
NO 5 , HO (nitric acid), page 68, will be 
found quite convenient for this experi- 
ment. Place in the retort three fourths 
what materials of an? ounce of Cu (copper filings), togeth- 
tainine this com- er with an ounce of SO 3 , HO (sulphuric 

pound? v r 

acid). The beak of the retort should pass 
into the receiver until it comes in contact 
with the safety -tube, which may now be 
removed, and water poured into the re- 
ceiver until the beak of the retort is just 
covered.* Insert the cork and tube, and 
apply a gentle heat to the retort. SO 2 
what is the form (sulphurous acid) will be set free in its 
acid ? su p u ls gaseous form, and will be absorbed by the 

* Instead of the glass stopper, it is safer to close 
the retort with a cork, through which a small glass 
tube is made to pass to the bottom. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

lent. But if SO 3 , HO is sulphuric acid, 
49 is its equivalent number. The stu- 
dent will bear in mind, however, that the 
latter is the true formula of the acid. 

Exp. 96. Place some anhydrous F 2 3 , 
BO 3 (sulphate of sesquioxide of iron) in a 
large test-tube, famished with a conduct- 
ing tube and cork smeared with sweet 
Describe the ex- oil. Apply a strong and continuous heat 
taming so^. to the test-tube, and conduct the vapor 
I free into a cold dry receiver, allowing 
the first portions to escape into the air. 
The cold receiver will condense the vapor 
into a white crystalline solid. It is SO 3 , 
hich authors call sulphuric acid. Ter- 
-xide of sulphur, if adopted srenerallv, 

would bell. l r o 

suit? would be a name which would leave no 

doubt upon the mind of the student as to 
the proper formula of the compound. 

ifsoa be dropped Exp. 97. Take some SO 3 (teroxide of 

into water, what i i \ i i -i i • 

takes place ? sulphur) upon a glass rod, and drop it 
into some water. It will combine vigor- 
ously with an atom of the water, causing 

When so' unius a hissing sound. SO 3 united to HO, atom 

with HO. v - , ., - . . , 

is to atom, forms the common oil of vitriol, 

7 7 • 1 C 

or sulphuric acid of commerce. 

Exp. 98. Fill the cup of a copper def- 
lagrating spoon (Fig. 37) with S (sul- 
phur). Place half an ounce of HO (wa- 
ter) in a half-gallon candy-jar. Ignite the 




SULPHURIC ACID. 87 

S, and allow it to burn in the jar, which 
should be kept covered. The Fig. 37. 
combustion will soon cease, 
and the jar will be filled with 
a white fume, which 4s SO 2 
(sulphurous acid). Remove 
the S dexterously, and quickly 

Explain Exp. us re-cover the jar, so as to exclude the air. 
Tie a slip of canton flannel to a glass rod, 
and saturate it with NO 5 , HO (nitric acid). 
After which, lower it into the fume in the 
jar. A reddish vapor, of a suffocating odor, 
will be disengaged, which is NO 4 (nitrous 
acid). The SO 2 has elected an atom of 

Give the formula from the NO 5 , and is now SO 3 . SO 2 ; 

illustrating the -» T/ ^.r ^/-xq .r^ ml . ,-, 

decomposition. N0 5 = SO , NO\ The water in the jar 
will soon combine with the SO 3 , when 
the burning S may be again introduced, 
and the whole process repeated several 
times. . In this way some diluted SO 3 , 
HO may be obtained. This compound 

How is sulphuric is prepared for commercial purposes by 

acid prepared for . . 

commercial pur- neatins fe in a iurnace, and conducting 

poses? ° & 

the SO 2 (sulphurous acid) thus formed 

through the vapor of NO 5 , HO (nitric 

what does the ni- acid). The NO 5 yields up one atom of 

trie acid yield ? . ' J * ' . - 

why is the com- its to the SO 2 , forming SO 3 , which is 
brought in con n then brought in contact with steam, from 

tact with steam ? i • i •, , i ■ /» , mi • 

What then be- which it takes an atom of water. This 
no? ' latter compound, SO 3 , HO, is now absorb- 







WabrmL 

^ pwi off C (faBTMEH. (0 tj<K. : 

em 



» i ininvn 




.' _- -..:- 







E 



PHOSPHORUS. 89 

what does the will be seen that the metal Fe has simply 

iron displace ? 

taken the place of the H of the acid, while 
what salt was the salt, sulphate of oxide of iron, was 

formed? 

formed. As soon as bubbles cease to rise 
from the liquid, remove the nail, and boil 
the liquid until a drop of it upon a slip of 
cold glass gradually assumes the crystal- 
line form. It is crystallized sulphate of 
What is its com- oxide of iron. Its common name is Cop- 
peras. 



mon name 



LESSON XXL 
^r^phofih": Phosphorus. Equivalents. Sym- 

rus - hnl P 

Its equivalent ) uuc -*■ • 

Exp. 101. Wet the hands with water, 
Explain Exp. 101. and by means of the point of a knife, re- 
move a stick of P from the bottle. Hold 
it between the thumb and finsrer in the 

o 

with what has p air. It w T ill smoke. P has combined 
The compound with the of the air, and formed PO 5 
(phosphoric acid). 

Exp. 102. Pour some water upon the 
table, and lay a stick of P in it. Cut off 
a piece of the size of a pea, and dry it be- 
Expiain Exp. 102. tween folds of blotting paper, taking care 
to avoid friction or pressure. Remove it 
quickly to another piece of dry blotting 
paper, and cover it with finely-pulverized 




I.::i. : ■ 






E \ '.A _ :■:■; - ~- - .--- ::' z 



. 



Rub tfee JuihiI ia tfee dark, and ifewffl^- 

..-•■•-.- :e - dr?. - ^;,r- r . :;ir- 

x 105L Filial ii&«hs tM 

imi direct a stream of 







PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN. 



91 



What is the equiv- 
alent of phosphu- 
retted hydrogen ? 

Its symbol 1 

How is it obtain- 
ed? ■ 



Explain the pro- 
cess in full. 



Why was 
ether added ' 



What circum- 
stance renders 
this precaution 
necessary ? 



Phosphuretted Hydrogen. Equivalent 
35. Symbol PR\ 
Exp. 106. Introduce an ounce of KO 
(caustic potash) into a half-pint glass re- 
tort, which fill half full of HO (water). 
Drop in a stick of P half an inch long, and 
place the retort in the sand-bath. A few 
minutes before applying heat, pour in a 
drachm of sulphuric ether, which, when 
heated, will volatilize and drive over the 
air that was contained in the upper part 
of the retort. This precaution is neces- 
sary, as PH 3 (phosphuretted hydrogen) ex- 
plodes spontaneously in contact with air. 
The beak of the retort should pass into a 

Fig. 38. 




bowl filled with water, and must be im- 
mersed at least an inch and a half beneath 



92 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

its surface. The heat applied should be 
gentle at first, and increased until the gas 

as earn bubble or passes over. Each bubble, as it rises to 

the gas comes in 

contact with the- the surface of the water, bursts into com- 

air. what takes 

place ? bustion, and then forms a beautiful wreath 

of white smoke, which widens as it as- 
cends, until it is finally dissipated in the 

what is the odor air. PH 3 has an unpleasant odor. 

ofPH 3 ? 

Exp. 107. Hold a jar of over the 

bubbles as they ascend through the water, 

keeping its mouth beneath the surface. 

if the bubbles of Each bubble will emit a brilliant flash of 

light, and the vessel containing the O will 

is the phenome- . 

"on be jarred. 

what In the formation of PH 3 , the water in 

is forme 'i the retort is decomposed. One atom of 

C'.wi- the formula 

upon the black- P unites with three atoms of H, and forms 

board. 

PH 3 , while the three liberated atoms of 

unite with another atom of P, forming 

what do some au- PO 3 (phosphorous acid). Some authors 

thors affirm , , > 

affirm that two acids are formed together 

with PH 3 , but the fact has never been es- 

Does the poins ? i tablished by experiment. The KO (po- 

undenro . , . -i , • 1 

tassa) undergoes no change, but simply 
acts upon the HO and P by its presence. 
Formula: 2P ; 3HO = P0 3 ; PH 3 . The 
P is thus divided between the elements 
of water. 



SILICON. 93 



LESSON XXII. 

Give the equiva- 
lent and symbol Silicon. Equivalent 22. Symbol Si. 

iaS!?" ts abun " Si is the most abundant of all the ele- 

Is it solid, liquid, , , r\ T , -i -,• j 

or gaseous? ments except O. It is a brown solid, 

Will it burn in ox- i • -i n • • -n • r\ t i 

y g en? which burns vividly in O, but never oc- 

Does it ever occur ... 1 r t 

free in nature i curs tree in nature. It is always found 

With Avhat ele- ■. . 

ment is it always combined with 0, and is called bilex, bil- 

found combined I 

what is it then i C a, or Silicic Acid. 

called ? 7 

The equivalent Silica (Silicic Acid). Equivalent 46. 

and symbol of sil- . 

iea? Symbol SiO 3 . 

in what does sin. SiO 3 abounds in all rocks except coal, 

ca abound ? 

limestone, and rock salt. It also enters 
what are sand- largely into the composition of soils. Sand- 
stone and flint are nearly pure SiO 3 (sili- 
what is said of ca). SiO 3 , combined with different me- 

the rose quartz, . ■,. ... 

&c. ? tallic oxides, forms the rose quartz, clial- 

what gives stiff- cedony, and opal. The stalks of grains 

ness to the stalks . 

of grains and and grasses owe their stillness to SiO 3 . 

grasses? ° 

what of scouring- Scouring rushes possess it in much lar- 

rushes ? . n-/-\Q 

under what cir- ger quantity. SiO , when subjected to a 

cumstances does 

sio3 possess acid strong heat, possesses powerful acid prop- 
Heated with pc- erties. Heated with KO (potassa) or NaO 

tassa or soda, " , ** 

what is formed ? (soda), it forms KO, feiO 3 (silicate of po- 
tassa), or NaO, SiO 3 (silicate of soda), ei- 




ounds m _ :ence 

::..:.:;: r~_-\ '■" _". .— :- • ?alt. When 
^quioxki - present, 

protox- 
Himt glass. 

half an our 
(cansr. 

ter). and one ic< . ounce c 

ized sand, in a and bo: 

ipo- 
ra- 

and allow the solution to cool an 
I 

_ 

i po- 
dryness in a s 
porcelain vessel 
m 

Ia haw m 

exiac: in 

in" 

lution which conta: I by 

til 

What would Mr pOSitc 

. - --- :-: iLl ir~- ~ I 7_ I .".>«• :L"r .". \I_l "_t . MIT 

would be I :old 

be the hnman frame without bon 



HYDROFLUORIC ACID. 95 

What is the equiv- 

aient of fluorine ? Fluorine. Equivalent 19. Symbol F. 
Has this element F has not yet been obtained uncom- 

ever been iso- , . , . -, 

lated? bmed witn other elements, which is prob- 

ably owing to its powerful affinities. At 
least this is the opinion of Professor G-reg- 
wny are its prop- ory, of Edinburgh. Its properties are, no 

erties inferred to J i ' • -i" Vi 

be similar to ox- doubt, somewhat similar to 0, as the two 

vgen ? ' ' 

elements have no affinity for each other. 
Give the eqmva- Hydrofluoric Acid. Equivalent 20. 

lent of hvdroflu- 

one acid.' Symbol HF. 

Explain the pro- Exp. 109. Place half an ounce of CaF 

cess of obtaining 

hf. (fluoride of calcium or nuor spar) in a 

shallow leaden vessel, which should be 
about three inches broad and three fourths 
of an inch deep. Add an ounce of SO 3 , 
HO (sulphuric acid). Smear over a piece 
of plain glass two inches wide with wax. 
Form upon it, by removing the wax, let- 
ters or figures, and place them directly 
over the mouth of the vessel. (See Fig. 
39.) Apply a gentle heat to the leaden 
vessel, and stand at a little distance for 
a few minutes. Remove the heat, and. 
place the glass where it will cool. Care 

why should care must be taken not to allow any of the 

be taken to avoid . .it 

the contact of fume of HF to come m contact with the 

HF with the 

skm? skin, as it produces lingering sores. It 

must not be breathed. "Wash the glass 



96 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

Fig. 39. 



H 




with water, and remove the wax. when 

the letters or figures will remain distinct. 

what i» this pro- This process is called etching on glass. 

:st hf be HF dissoh s g] 9S, and hence is preserved 

preserved in lead- . _ _ _ 

en botuea ' m leaden bottles. The materials used for 

Materials used for 

obtaining hf > obtaining HF were : 



Fig. 40. 




Draw and explain 
the figure. 



The H of the acid was simply displaced 
by the metal Ca. when it united with the 
F. forming HF (hydrofluoric acid). For- 
Give the formula, wife: CaF ; 80* HO = CaO. SO 5 ; HF. 
U HF required in the liquid form, its 
vapor mr«; ndensed in a receiver 



ALUMINUM. 97 

surrounded with ice, from which it may- 
be poured into a leaden bottle and care- 
fully sealed. 



LESSON XXIII. 
S iS o?S£ Aluminum. Equivalent 14. Symbol 

urn? A 7 

Its symbol ! - CLi ' 

Explain the exper- Exp. 110. Heat to redness in a defla- 
Ai!n t o < xygen ning grating spoon (see Fig. 37) a small quan- 
tity of Al, and plunge it quickly into a 
jar of 0, which must be kept covered. A 
brilliant combustion will ensue, the result 
what is the re- ofwhichis APO 3 (alumina or sesquioxide 
of aluminum) , partially fused. It is near- 
whatofthehard- ly as hard as the diamond, glass being 
pound? ' *" readily cut by it, APO 3 is found nearly 
what precious pure in nature, in the form of the sapphire 

stones are nearly . 

pure ah and ruby. It is also a prominent msre- 

What is the chief . l ° 

ingredient of dient of clays and slate rocks. Emery 



ofwhatdoesem- consists of minute particles of APO 3 

erv consist T i 



clays ? 
)f what 
ery consist? w^iaw wj. xxxxaxlauw ^.^ux-v^vw w*. +*.* ^ , 

which, on account of their hardness, are 
used for polishing glass and the harder 
metals. 

Exp. 111. Boil for twenty minutes half 

an ounce of Brazil wood with four ounces 

Give Exp. 112 in of HO (water) in a retort or flask. Pour 

off the liquid, and add half an ounce of 

KO, SO 3 , APO 3 , 3S0 3 (alum). The color 

E 




Bfi FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

is heightened. >'ow add some saturated 

solution of 1 .ate of soda). 

A brilliant red precipitate will - 
wto » ite p«- the bottom, which is Brazil Wood Lake. 
vm wimc m «■ The acetate of alumina, formed by Exp. 

B - as - . - "" - 

Sodium (Latin Natrium). Equivalent 
23L 8um I 

Exp. 112. Fill a test-tube half full of 
HO (water), into which drop a small r 
* puce* of the metal >"a. It will move round 

■poa water. 

whM n il i • upon the suriace. presenting the appear- 
ance of a beautiful silver ball, until final- 
ly it disappears. The element Xa has 
united with the element of the water. 
and formed NaO (soda), 
is tke pi»e- Exp. 113. Dae boiling water instead 
»•*- of cold, and the combi> lent, and 

often attended with explosion. Th^ 
combir. _ "ith the that a 

rScient quantity of heat is liberate 
izai- ignite the escaping H. which, owing 
w*y do» *»■» the presence of Xa, burns with a yellow 
due ! flame. 

Exp. 114. Pour the liquid formed by 
the above into an infusion of purple dah- 
lia or blue cabbage. The color will be 
H<m m aoda changed to green. All alkalies produce 



CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. 99 

NaO (soda) is an alkali. Na has a strong 
attraction for 0, and must be preserved 
How must sodium in a liquid which does not contain this el- 
ement. Mineral naphtha is ordinarily 
used for this purpose. 

What is the equiv- * 

aient of chloride Chloride of Sodium (Common oalt). 

of sodium? J v ' 

its common Equivalent 58. Symbol NaCl. 

name ? x ^ 

Its symbol? Exp ^ 115 Fm a tuml)ler half full of 

CI (chlorine) water, and add a piece of Na 
of the size of a pea. It will have the 
same appearance as in Exy 112. But 

Explain Exp. 115. the Na has combined with the CI instead 
of the of the water, and formed NaCl 
(chloride of sodium). Evaporate the so- 

what are the cu- lution gradually, and cubical crystals will 

formed? be formed. These are Common Salt. 

in what parts of Common salt is found in all parts of the 

the earth is com- , . , .'. _ 

mon salt found ? earth in large quantities, fcometimes it 

is dug from the bowels of the earth in 

in what form is it huge masses, which are afterward broken 

obtained when . 

dug from the mto small fragments, and thus rendered 

earth? . ° 

convenient for the use of man. In this 
what does it re- form it resembles a transparent rock, and 

scmblc ^ 

what is h called? is called Rock Salt. At others it is ob- 
is it obtained in 

any other form ? tained from salt springs, which are reach- 
ed at a depth of several hundred feet be- 
neath the surface of the earth. From 
these the water is pumped into vats and 
evaporated until it crystallizes. Grranu- 




100 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

How m granular lar salt is formed by stirring the heated 
wkyha»tte ere- mass until it is nearly cold. Salt is indis- 
«» pensable to the life of plants and animals, 
and hence a benevolent Creator has fur- 
nished it in such abundance. 

Potassium (Latin Kalium). 

>. 11A Boil some water in a 
basin, and -when cold fill a from 

it. Invert th-. e in the basin, and 

keep its mouth beneath the surface of the 
water. By means of a pair of slender 
pliers, place a piece of K (potassium) un- 
der the mouth of the tube, and allov 
- :ape. It will rise up in the tube, and 
«- combine rapidly with the of the water 
wh«t is liberated t in the form of a combustion, while the H 
is liberated, winch will soon displace the 
wa* 

p. 117. Lift the test-tube from the 
vater. and quickly apply a lighted match 
or candle to its mouth. The H will ignite, 
and burn with its characteristic flame. 
if potassium be Exp. IIS. Cut oat a small cavity- in a 
Ma wtt iee 7 piece of ice. and drop into it a piece of K. 
A combustion will ensue. The K com- 
bines vigorously with the of the ice 
(crystallized water), and the H is again 
Give the tanGia- liberated. Formula : HO ; K = KO : H 



MANGANESE. 101 

Fig. 41. 
HO H 

^ . 7 

Explain Fig. 41. ^ . 

K KO 

set free. K is a white metal resembling 
what are the J\ T a (sodium) in many of its properties. It 

properties of po- . ■ - 

tassium? yields to tne pressure oi the ringers like 

what of its wax, and is the lightest of all the metals, 

weight? . D 

being lighter than HO (water). It has a 
now must it be powerful attraction for 0, and must he 

preserved? 

preserved, like JNa, under naphtha. 



LESSON XXIV. 

Tien^^ma^I"- Manganese. Equivalent 28. Symbol 

Its symbol ? Mn. 

Exp. 119. Mix one part of MnO 2 (per- 
oxide of manganese) with one of C (char- 
coal) in a mortar, and pulverize them 
thoroughly together. Add sweet oil suf- 
ficient to form the whole into a thick 

Explain Exp. ii9. paste. Transfer to a crucible, which 
should be covered and subjected to a white 
heat. The two atoms of from the ox- 
ide unite with ono of C, and form CO 2 
(carbonic acid), and the Mn remains in 
its metallic form, slightly covered with an 

Give the formula, oxide of the metal. Formula : MnO 2 ; 
C = C0 2 ; Mn set free. (See Fig. 42.) 



102 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

Kc 42. 



MnO= 




Draw and explain 
Fig. 42. 



Exp. 120. Mix in a mortar one part 
of MnO 2 . four of litharge, and four of pipe 
clay. Pulverize thoroughly, and add wa- 
ter until a thick paste is formed. Trans- 
fer the whole to a crucible, and apply a 
red heat. On cooling, it will form a bright 
black glaze. If half the quantity of MnO 2 
is used, its color will be brown. Potters 
now do pott, rs prepare black or brown <rlaze in a similar 

prepare brown 

and bi ■ -aw MnO- was iormerlv used instead 

For what was the ^ 

of man- f KG. CIO (chlorate of potassa) for ob- 

rmerly v x 

taining 0. 

s proper- Mil is a <rrav metal, more difficult of 

fusion than Fe (iron). It is never found 

free in nature, but always in combination 

where is the ox- with 0. It is obtained in srreat abun- 

ide found ? 

dance in the form of MnO 2 , from the 

mountains of Tennessee, and in many 

Does maneanese other parts of the world. It combines 

unite with oxv- i. , 

gen to form more with O, forming several different com- 

than one ° 

pound? pounds. 

™aiem anS Magnesium. Equivalent 13. Symbol 

symbol of magne- -i r 

sium- *«* .5 • 

in what form does This element is also a metal. It has a 

this element ex- . . 

tati silvery appearance, and does not combine 



MAGNESIA. 103 

Does it unite with with at ordinary temperatures. Hence 

O at ordinary . , 

temperatures? it may be easily preserved. 
The equivalent Magnesia (Protoxide of Magnesium). 

and symbol of . i i -n/r s^. 

magnesia? Equivalent 21. bljmool MgO. 

wnatofthediffu- This compound is widely diffused 

sion of this com- 

pound? throughout the earth, but is generally 

what is the com- combined with SO 3 (sulphuric acid), when 

position of Ep- .. o» 7 -r • i /» 

som salts? it is called Epsom baits. It is also found 
with what other in nature combined with CO 2 (carbonic 

found? . acid). It is then called Carbonate of Mag- 

what do springs nesia. Springs in various parts of the 

in various parts ,, , . __. „. r ir\i / ar\A -n/r \ • 

of the earth con- earth contam MgO, felr (or fe(J 4 , Mg) m 

tain ? 

solution, as at Saidschutz, in Bohemia, 

where are large where large quantities of this salt are ob- 

som salts obtain- tained. The waters are evaporated until 

ed? 

whatisthechem- crystals of MgO, SO 3 (sulphate of magne- 

ical name of Ep- . ° v L 

som salts? sia) appear. 

Exp. 121. Dissolve as much Epsom 
salts in an ounce of water as possible, and 

Explain Exp. i2i. add a strong solution of carbonate of po- 
tassa. A white precipitate will be form- 
ed, which is MgO, CO 2 (carbonate of mag- 

ng. 43. 

MgO, S03 MgO, C02 



Draw the diagram 
and explain it. 



T3T 37- 



-ZT 



KO, C02 KO, S03 

nesia). MgO, SO 3 ; KO, C0 2 = KO, SO 3 ; 
MgO, CO 2 set free. The SO 3 elects the 



104 

K0. and me CO the MgO; that is. the 

tkm of do«4/e elective ajutiiu. When 

wrtai>*rm». MgO. CO* (carbonate of magnesia) is 
^ found name in connection with CaC 

(limestone), the compound is called Do- 
lor 

*" Calcium. Equivalent 20. Symbol 



:> 




The properties of this element hare 
hiV never been mfly investigated, bat it is 
supposed to be a metaL It has a power* 
foi ajfinity for 0. 



o? 



Protoxide of Calcium (Lime). Equir- 

alt* 28 -;/«&>/ CflO. 

£jr/>. 122. Place a small piece of CaO. 

Ti* tmmmm CO* (carbonate of lime— chalk ) in a era- 

c::, .: cihle, and subject it to a white heat for 

half an hour. Its properties are now 

Ei^ia changed. It will not mark, and has an 

the CO 2 (carbonic add), and the CaO 

-- :-:i; ;:_-.= ':.::.- rrzirji?. ~ :. " > ;;^ij :::::: z 
i »- nature combined with CO 2 . Chalk, mar- 
"::>. i:.i L_zirj-:Lf l:t h-:i:.t : -ir- LsO. 
CO 3 (carbonate of lime). Gypsum and 




CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM — IRON. 105 



C lln e t aid Tmlo'i Chloride of Calcium.. Equivalent 55. 

ofcUorideofcal- Symbol CaCl. 

Explain the exper- Exp. 123. Add some pieces of chalk to 
ing this com- an ounce of HC1 (hydrochloric acid) un- 
til effervescence ceases. CaCl and HO 



CaOC02 


Fig. 44. 


C02 


\N^^ HO 


•^ ==^. 



Draw and illus- 
trate Fig. 44. 



H CI Ca CI 

(water) are formed while the CO 2 (car- 
Ibonic acid) is liberated in its gaseous form. 
Evaporate the solution until it has the 
appearance of a sirup, and allow it to 
cool. Crystals of CaCl will he formed. 
For what is Caci CaCl is used chiefly for drying gases, as 
what name has it attracts moisture with great force. 

been given to this . 

salt? Hence it is called a hygroscopic salt. 



LESSON XXY. 

What is the Latin T ._ . __ . _^ 

for iron! Iron (Latin Ferrum). Equivalent 28. 

Its symbol and v '■ 

equivalent? bymOOl JC C 

What is formed 

Se evaP soTS Exp. 124. Evaporate the solution form- 

formed by Exp. ed ^ ^ m ^^ ^^ ^ ^ 

SchemiSand formed, which is FeO, SO 3 (sulphate of 

common name of , • i <* • \ ,1 -i , i '■ 

the substance, protoxide of iron), the substance used in 
E 2 



106 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



What is sai.l of 

iron I 
Is it ever found 

nearly purr in 

With what ele- 
ments is it usual- 
ly found ? 

Springs wtaieb 
contain the car- 
ol iron are 
called what ' 

How many oxides 
are tound in na- 
ture ' 

What are they 7 



Is the protoxide 

ever found in na- 
ture > 
What of its prep- 
aration in the la- 
boratory / 



Exp. 4. It is commonly called Copperas. 
Fc is the most useful of all the metals, 
and is sometimes found nearly pure in na- 
ture. It is usually found combined with 
(oxygen), S (sulphur), or CO 2 (carbonic 
acid). Springs which contain the carbon- 
ate of oxide of iron are called Chalybeate. 
There are two oxides of Fe found in na- 
ture, the Fe 2 3 (sesquioxide of iron) and 
the Fe 3 0* (magnetic oxide — loadstone). 
FeO (protoxide) is unknown in a free 
suite in nature, and is prepared in the la- 
boratory with great difficulty. 



Table of the Inorganic Elements^ with their Equiv- 
alent* and Symbols. 



Equir 
aletit. 

.Selenium 40 

Bromine 78 

Iodine 127 

Barium 69 

Strontium 44 

Cobalt 30 

Nickel 30 

Zinc 32 

Tin (Latin Stannum) . 59 

Cadmium 56 

Lead (Latin Plumbuih) 104 

Bismuth 71 

Copper (Lat. Cuprum) 32 
Mercury (Latin Hy- 
drargyrum) 

Silver (Latin Argcn- 
lum) 



Symbol 

Br. 
I. 

Ba. 
Sr. 
Co. 
Ni. 
Zn. 
Sn. 
Cd. 
Pb. 
Bi. 
Cu. 



203 Hg. 
108 Ag. 



Gold (Latin Aurum) 

Platinum 

Chromium 

Antimony (Latin 

Stibium) 

Arsenic 

Iridium 

Lanthanium 

Lithium 

Molybdenum 

Osmium 

Palladium . 

Rhodium 

Ruthenium 

Tantalum 

Tellurium 

Thorium 



199 

99 
28 



An. 

Pt. 
Cr. 



129 Sb. 



75 

99 

48 

6 

48 

100 

53 

52 

52 

185 

64 

60 



As. 

Ir. 
La. 

Li. 
Mo. 
Os. 
Pd. 

R. 
Ru. 
Ta. 
Te. 
Th. 



SELENIUM BROMINE IODINE. 



107 



Bff s ^™- 



Titanium 24 

Tungsten (Latin 

Wolfram) 

Uranium 217 



Ti. 



100 Y\~ 



Vanadium. 
Yttrium . . 
Zirconium 
Terbium* . 
Pelopium* 



69 



34 



U. 
Y. 
Y. 

Zr. 
Tb. 

Pe. 



Norium* • • • 

Didymium* 
Glucinuni* 
Niobium* . . 
Ilruenium* . 
Erbium* . . . 
Donariuni* 
Aridium* . . 
Cerium* . . . 



Nr. 
D. 

G. 
No. 

II. 
E. 
Do. 
Ar. 
Ce. 



Give the equiva- 
lent and symbol 
of selenium. 



Its color. 

Is it a solid ? 

What is its color 
when in the form 
of a fine powder.' 

For what ele- 
ments has it an 
affinity 1 



What is the equiv- 
alent of bromine i 
Its svmbol? 



Is it a metal 



What of its pois- 
onous effects 1 



Selenium. Equivalent 40. Symbol 
Se. 
Se is a dark "brown solid, having a me- 
tallic lustre and a deep red color when 
reduced to a fine powder. It has an af- 
finity for (oxygen), H (hydrogen), Br 
(bromine), CI (chlorine), S (sulphur), and 
P (phosphorus). 

Bromine. Equivalent 40. Symbol Br. 
Br is a reddish brown liquid, very pois- 
onous and corrosive to the skin. Three 
drops of it placed upon the tongue of a 
rabbit will produce death in a few seconds. 



The symbol and 
equivalent of io- 
dine? 

Give its proper- 
ties. 

In what form is it lustre, 
obtained 1 

with what color- scales, and burns with a beautiful violet 

ed flame does it 

burn? name. It derives its name from the 



Iodine. Equivalent 127. Symbol I. 
I is a bluish black solid, of a metallic 
It is obtained in thin laminee or 



* Elements whose equivalents are not well established. 






• - :- 



::• !11 n 'Li - '!:!! 










mm ii tf — mu- 




^■M 



■ i 



_ 

i»cmar. 

-- r: 



SSHMfll MM 



"■:c::_i<:- — .^.1 ... ifli B 



'V'iui nriai 



— : '.'■ l "■ ' -' 



y 



ir 



112X11 - 



ZINC TIN CADMIUM. 109 

with what eie- ver, the other two being Cu (copper) and 

ments does nick- . • i r\ r i n 

ei unite; £n (zinc). It unites with 0, CI, and S* 

Give the equiva- 

lent and symbol Zinc. Equiv client 32. Symbol Zn. 

of zinc. * J 

Zn is a bluish metal, not easily tarnish- 
ed on exposure to air. At common tem- 
its properties. pcratures it is brittle, but when heated 
to 270 z Fahrenheit it is both ductile and 
malleable. Burned in 0, it emits a white 
light. 



LESSON XXYI. 
^ordfor 11 ^ 111 Tin ( Latm Stannum). Equivalent 59. 



•word for tin 
fts symbol 
equivalent ? 



Symbol Sn: 



Sn is a white metal having a decided 
lustre. It is but slightly oxydized on ex- 
Give its proper- posure to air, and is susceptible of being 
beaten into leaves not more than xoVo tn 
of an inch in thickness. In this form it 
or what is com- is called tin foil. Thin sheets of iron 

mon tin-ware 

composed ? coated with this metal form the common 

tin-ware of the shops. Sn in bars pro- 

with what bodies duces a crackling sound when bent. It 

does the element 

unite? combines with 0, S, and CI. 

Give the equiva- Cadmium. Equivalent 56. Symbol 

lent and symbol 

of cadmium. Cu. 

Cd resembles Sn (tin) in appearance, 



li I ■■ H 



- 




: 

CmhII 



MERCURY. Ill 

For what is cop- metals. Cu is distinguished for having 

per distinguish- . ♦ . 

ed? the three properties, malleability, ductm- 

with what class ty, and tenacity. It will unite readily 

readily unite ? with any of the well-marked acids, form- 
what of the com- ing compounds which are deadly poisons. 
why should cook- Hence it should not be used for cooking 

ins utensils .,..,. , . , ~ . N 

made of copper be utensils until it is lined with fen (tin) or 

lined with tin J \ 

some other non-corrosive metal. Vinegar 

what is formed standing in copper vessels corrodes the 

allowed to e stand metal, and the solution (acetate of copper) 

in copper ves- . . . 

seis ? is highly poisonous. Brass is an alloy of 

What is the com- ° J L J 

position of brass? Zn (zinc) and Cu. Bronze and bell-met- 

Of bell-metal and v ' 

bronze? a i are composed of Cu, Zn, and Sn (tin). 

Give the Latin for 

mercury. Mercury (Latm Hydrargyrum). 

What is its equiv- J v u & J ' 

it a s le s n vmboi? Equivalent 203. Symbol Hg. 

in what particular Hg differs from all other metals in hav- 

does it differ from . . , , . . , » 

aii other metais ? mg the liquid iorm at common tempera- 
what is it com- tures. It is commonly called quicksil- 

monly called ? 1 . .. . n , ri 

what are its ver, and is used m barometers and ther- 
mometers. It is also used, when amalga- 
mated with Sn (tin), for coating the back 

what compounds of mirrors. Hg unites with 0, forming 

o? two distinct compounds, HgO (protoxide 

of mercury) and HgO 2 (peroxide). The 

what is the color former compound is a black, and the lat- 
ter a red powder. Red Precipitate is 
HgO 2 (peroxide of mercury). This cu- 

what of its com- rious metal also forms two compounds 

pounds with • ■»/-« "i tt ii-i 

chlorine? with CI, the HgCl (protochlonde of mer- 



112 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

cury— calomel) and HgCP (bichlorid 

co .iblimate). It unites with I 

withiodme? (iodine) in two proportions also, Hgl 

and Hgl : (biniodide). 
For what ajhe This latter compound is distinguished for 
dliant vermilion color. (See Exp. 
11. page 2 Eta mpounds with Br 






■tee! (bromine) are similar to those of I. 

•'.v"r": :• -".. v,"- >""/■■_- Latin Argentum). Equivalent 

What is its sym- 

>ymbol . : i 
The appearance of this metal is well 
known. It melts at a red heat. and. com- 
wrth bined with about eight per c 
what (copper), fori: er coin. It unites 

it com- with 0. forming but one compound 

le of silver), which is a dark 
The oxi*e. when brown powder. This oxide, when com- 
i—niii forms bined with XH 3 (ammonia . dan- 

what ! 

with what other gerously explosive body. Ag also unites 
sorer unite: with S, Br. I. and CI. 



lesson xxm 

ibrgow? Gold (Latin Aurum). Equivalent 199. 

5 equrra- . ' 

fcs*. 00 1. All, 

AhH Hi ■JWJIll 

what is said of i-.s Au. with the exce Pt (plati- 

num), is the : all the r. 

7 it has feeble affinities. It will not direct- 



PLATINUM CHROMIUM. 113 

why will it not ly unite with 0, and hence its bright yel- 

tarnish when ex- . . 

posed to the air? low color is never tarnished by exposure 
How are oxides of to air, water, or heat. Two oxides of the 

the metal form- . 

ed? metal, however, are formed by an indirect 

process. It unites readily with CI, form- 
iiow many chio- ing two compounds, which are AuCl (pro- 
formed? tochloride of gold) and AuCl 3 (perchlo- 
ride). 

whatistheequiv- pi a u n um. Equivalent 99. Symbol 

num? Tif 

Its symbol? sri - 

its leading proper- Pt is the heaviest of the metals. Au 
How much heavi- (gold) is about nineteen times heavier 

er than water is xo 

gold? than water, and Pt is twenty-one times 

Platinum? _ ' * 

heavier than that body. It is the most 
ductile, and, with the exception of Cr 
(chromium), it is the most infusible. It 

Has it ever been resists the heat of the most powerful fur- 
fused by the heat , , _ , _ . . 

of the furnace? nace, and hence is often used for making 
crucibles and roasting dishes. It can only 

now can it be be melted by the oxy hydrogen blow-pipe, 
or by the agency of electricity. Pt re- 
sembles silver in appearance, and com- 
bines with 0, S, and I, but, like Au (gold), 

rectiywith'o ? U1 " it will not unite directly with 0. 



melted ? 



What does it re- 
semble in appear- 
ance? 

Will it unite di 



what are the Chromium. Equivalent 28. Symbol 

equivalent and * u 

symbol of chro- f^ r 

mium? V\ m 

iias P ?t P ever S been This element exists in the form of a 

fused or acted . •. T . -, , t n i 

upon by acids ? gray metal. It has never yet been rased 










Antimony (Latin Stibium). Eqmita- 
le» <umbol - 

-" :-= i '::;-'.-. m ._.: -±.-\±'-\* :.-\\ 
'.' Llis i "i Luit-Ii-jtt -.'■' :■■ j •. a:: : > "li-f ■:".::-:: 
f l f j i mifc of printing ombaes 

mmmr with (X forming four di?unct 

- ■ 

is a gray powder, and is the active princi- 

-. .•; ■;' --.-*•■- -•■ ■•-■;. ->.A- ■•■■•:. ■.-•.■■■.:.i-i. "■ -._: 
a doable tartrate of antimonv and 



* 



: 
i€ exception that it is a more 

■r.i.T > •.—'...> ;.— ; r ;. ->. '.-.;' l: ;- ~ \"-:. -Ill 

fcmrrag- salts eaDed Amtimonit^ 



ehuf pnpn> This metal has a light gray cok : 

_ 



ARSENIOUS ACID. 115 

from all other metals. If entirely pure, 
its lustre is not tarnished by exposure to 
air, unless it is strongly heated. 

Exp. 125. Place six or eight grains of 
As (metallic arsenic) in the centre of a 
glass tube, and apply heat by means of 
Give Exp. 125 in the spirit-lamp. The smell of garlic will 
soon be perceived (which should not be 
breathed to any considerable extent), and 
the metal will soon be dispersed over the 
upper part of the tube in the form of a 
beautiful black mirror. Hence As vola- 



full. 



Does this metal 
volatilize 
heat 1 



fey tilizes by heat. 



3ive the equiva- ^ rsen i ous ^ ci ^ Equivalent 99. Sijm- 



lent and symbol 

of 

acid. 



arsenious bol AsO\ 



what is it com- AsO 3 is commonly called Rafs Bane 

monly called ? . 

its properties? or Arsenic. It is a heavy white powder, 

having no smell, and but very little taste. 

For what pur- It is a deadly poison, and is often used for 

poses has it been . . . 

used? criminal purposes. Its antidote is Fe 2 3 , 

What are its anti- J l 

dotes? HO (iron rust), or the white of eggs, the 

latter of which should be administered 
freely. 

Exp. 126. Take a glass tube one foot 
in length, and heat one end of it in the 

Give Exp. 126 in flame of a spirit-lamp ; draw it to a point, 
which hold in the flame until the orifice 
is closed by fusion. When cool, place it 
in an upright position, and introduce two 



116 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

or three grains of AsO 3 (arsenious acid). 
Drop into the tube a slender piece of 
charcoal. Hold it horizontally in the 
flame until the coal glows, and quickly 
transfer the heat to the end of the tube 
'which contains the AsO , which will be 
volatilized, and. passing over the glowing 
coal, will release its 0\ and the As will 
form a metallic mirror upon the sides of 
riace the formuin the tube just above the coal. Formula: 

illustrative ol the ^„ ^^ _.,-,-,„ 

cham-eupoi. : 3C=3 lAs* 

Mack-board. 

The following: is a list of rare and <ren- 
erally unimportant elements, whose prop- 
erties are not well known : Iridium, Lan- 
thanium. Lithium, Molybdenum, Osmi- 
um, Palladium, Rhodium, Ruthenium. 
Tantalum, Tellurium, Thorium, Titani- 
um, Tungsten, Uranium, Vanadium, Yt- 
trium, Zirconium, Terbium, Pelopium, 
jNbrium, Didymium, (xlucinum, Niobium, 
Ilmenium, Erbium, Donarium, Aridium, 
and Cerium. 

* For critical and delicate tests of arsenious acid, 
the student is confidently referred to Dr. u Draper's 
Text-book on Chemistry/' page 296. 



ACIDS BASES SALTS. 



117 



What are acids ? 



Do all acids pos- 
sess these prop- 
erties ? 

What property do 
they all possess ? 



What are bases 1 

What effect have 
alkalies on vege- 
table blues ? 

What do acids 
and bases form I 



What more sim- 
ple theory is giv- 



Give the example. 

What does CI and 
Na stand for ? 

What was the 
original type of 
all the salts ? 

How is CI re- 
garded ? 

What is formed 
when chlorine 
and sodium are 
brought in con- 
tact? 



LESSON XXVIII. 
Acids. — Bases. — Salts. 

Acids are bodies which usually have a 
sour taste, and change vegetable blues to 
red. Some acids, however, do not pos- 
sess these properties. They all have the 
property of neutralizing alkalies and other 
bases. 

Bases are bodies which have an attrac- 
tion for acids, and, when alkaline, change 
vegetable blues to green, also red test-pa- 
per to blue. Acids and bases unite and 
form a numerous class of salts, according 
to the commonly-received theory upon 
this subject. The more simple theory, by 
which all the phenomena of the formation 
of salts are explained, is to consider the 
subject in the light of radicals and metals 
instead of acids and bases. Example : CI 
and Na unite and form common salt, 
which was the original type of all the 
salts. As CI is regarded as a simple body, 
we shall consider it as a simple salt rad- 
ical, which, when brought in contact with 
the metal Na, the salt is formed. Some- 



115 FIRST FSONanJBS OF 



L+r '. > . i. 



.,-iiatL tunes the ait radical is a ouuipuunc 






v.- :. -,.. t ...c - : . ■.- H-.r.;-e. v.-hrz nirr.c -■:.<! c-. ::-*: 

•••■;:■•■-.< ". l Mjfii. s.l.'. .. si.".: :-.•>:-_>. :;;■:■ 1 

:;.-. ;. ... > -mr. .y ...-;...-•- ": \ 

Glaa. thp fnnm&ka A L * . XI ! A — xi. Jbi 

















:-: ?■ = 

■ 
>:'.iT.r: . :::::: 
:.: -i:..: :.;r:- 



SULPHATES. 119 

Are both these Both these bodies are hypothetical. It 
teai? 8 i> P o ma y be added that there is no well-mark- 
marked acid that ed acid that does not contain H (hydro- 
does not contain -r-v^c ^q -i 

hydrogen? gen). Dry SO 3 , PO 5 , CrO 3 , and several 

What is said of ° ' J ' ' ' 

and c^os'' P ° 5 ' °^ ner ox yg en compounds, have no acid 

properties. CO 2 (carbonic acid), though 

HasconhepoAv- commonly called an acid, has not the 

er of neutralizing . *iT T 

the alkalies? power of neutralizing the alkalies. In- 
Do those com- deed , none of those compounds which were 

pounds which r , ,, -. . , 

were formerly formerly called, oxygen acids possess posi- 

called oxygen ac- . 

ids possess acid tive acid properties without the presence 

properties when *■ A x 

hydrogen is not of hvdrOgen. 
present ? J D 

what is Professor Professor Gregory, of Edinburgh, gives 

Gregory's defini- . -.-' n ... „ T . 

tionofasait? the following definition of a salt: " It is 
the compound formed by replacing the 
hydrogen of an acid by a metal." 

Sulphates. 
when salts con- Sometimes salts contain two equiva- 

tain two equiva- 

lents of the acid fonts of the acid or radical, when thev 

or radical, what % J 

prefix is used? have the prefix bi- ; as, bisulphate of po- 
tassa. Neutral sulphate of potassa has 
the formula K, SO 4 , or, according to the old 
theory, KO, SO 3 . 

Exp. 127. To a saturated solution of 

Give Exp. 127 in carbonate of potassa add sulphuric acid, 
till effervescence ceases. Carbonate of 

The formula mus- potassa = KO, CO 2 , or K, CO 3 . Sulphuric 

Sige. ° f the acid= SO 3 , HO, or SO 4 , H. K, CO 3 ; SO 4 , 

H=K, SO 4 ; CO 2 j HO. K, SO 4 (sul- 



Wit ' ^^ 



-.orBrfK isolpiiare i 



- -: 

nma nr -HUimaui 
i. inu iia- 






ether sok. Br » «■* «f tfte sates whiet 



NITRATES. 121 

alumina and sulphate of potassa. (See 
Exp. 8, page 18.) 

Give the formula Mg, SO 4 , HO, 01" MgO, SO 3 , HO (sul- 
of sulphate of • \ • -, n j 

magnesia. phate of magnesia), is commonly called 

what is its com- Epsom salts. It may be readily formed 



mon name 



How may this salt by dissolving carbonate 01 magnesia in di- 
The shape of its lute sulphuric acid. Its crystals are four- 

crystals? . 1 1 

sided prisms. 
what general ob- The sulphates are a numerous family 
made in refer- of salts, but most of them do not occur in 

ence to the sul- .. 

phates? nature, and as yet are ol little use. 



LESSON XXIX. 
Nitrates. 
How may the ni- The nitrates, like the sulphates, may 

trates be formed? . . 

be obtained by the action of NO 6 , H, or 

NO 5 , HO (nitric acid), on the metals or 

Are nitrates insoi- metallic oxides. All nitrates are soluble 

uble in water? 

what effect is pro- in water, and are decomposed at a red 

duced on these . 1 . . 

salts when they heat. lne most important salt of this 

are exposed to a • 

red heat? family is the K, NO 6 , or KO, NO 5 (nitrate 

Which is the most J . ', ■■ . 

important salt of of potassa). Its common name is Salt- 

this family ? r ' 

What is its com- p e f re . It is found abundantly in nature 

mon name ? -^ J 

Taund? is U -^ n cr y s tals, but most commonly mixed 
Is puref allyf0und with soil, called Nitre-beds. It is the 
of what is it the chief ingredient of gunpowder (see Exp. 

chief ingredient? D ? r J r 

70, page 71), and, mixed with sulphur and 
F 



i'2'-2 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

now is fuiminat- carbonate of potassa, a compound called 

ing powder form- A l 

cd ' Fulminating Powder is formed. 

II. rp. L28. Mix thorougnly in a mortar 
six parts of K, NO 6 (nitrate of potassa), 

eta E.xp. i*. four of K, CO 3 , or KG, CO 3 (carbonate of 
potassa), and two of snlplmr. Place a 
grain of the mixture upon a slip o( eop- 

mixture he im- '" . . , , 

meraed in the per, and immerse it m the llame oi the 

[tame ol'a sjurit- 

jamp. what w- spirit-lamp. A lond report will take place, 
vvtat ,s the ror- Na, K I >, NO 5 (nitrate of soda), 

inula of nitrau- . , . . 

ofeodmi la louiiil native in the East Indus and m 






What of its pnp- Peru. Its properties arc very similar to 
K. NO 6 , only that it hums more slowly 
when mixed with charcoal 

Ml V ■. p| N W (nitrate of am- 

What is (he for- v 

nuiia oi-mtraieof nionia), has already been described on 

ammonia -' 

page 63. 

Give the rormuia Ba, NO 6 , or BaO, N( P (nitrate of harv- 

Of nitrate of ha- i • i 

ryta, ta). is chiefly used as a chemical test, and 

For what is it /7 • 7 

chiefli when exposed to a red heat, the Ba re- 

^ hen exposed to l 

a red heat, what fains one atom of 0, and ~S0 5 is driven 

result takis ' 

*■" : orf in the form of N : 5 . 

what is .he for- g, XO\or Sri >, NO 5 (nitrate of stron- 

mulaot nitrate ot * V 

FoTwiJat 'is a train). This salt is used extensively in 
whaleoiordoes.t the manufacture of lire-works. It im- 
^T^faSS. parts a brilliant crimson flame. 

of nitrate ot 'cop- ^ j^ gg^ or q^ ^^ 3RQ ^ 

What is the form . . e \ • r -\ • j t. i 

and color of this trate ot copper), is termed m deep bine 
what does it yield crystals, which, when heated to redness, 

when heated to . _ _ . , p 

redness? yield protoxide ot cop] 



run into moulds, 
what is it called ? 



CHLORATES. 123 

What is the com- The composition of nitrate of mercury 

position of ni- . „ 1 ... .. .. 

trate of mercury? IS not Well established. 

The formula of ni- Ag, NO 6 , or AgO, NO 5 (nitrate of sil- 

trate of silver ? , ■ . v . . , , 

For what is it ver, or lunar caustic), is used to eschar 

used? _ . 

the skin and to destroy tumors. It is 
of what is it the also the active principle of indelible ink. 
wha: takes place All compounds of silver are blackened 

with all the core- . 

pounds cr silver when exposed to h<mt in contact with or- 

when exposed to . 

Ti ight i , &anic substances. This salt crystallizes 

How does this salt D J 

when al fus e ed and m ^ nm ^^ e ^ anc ^5 when fused and run 
into moulds, is called lunar caustic. 

Chlorates, 
This class of salts is similar to the ni- 
wwch are the im- trates, but the only important ones are 
nected with the chlorate of potassa and chlorate of baryta. 

chlorates T J 

Give the symbols K, CIO 6 , or KO, CIO 5 (chlorate of potas- 
tassa. sa). It crystallizes in six and four sided 

How does it crvs- . 

taiiize? tables, and is soluble in sixteen times its 

How much water 

is required to dis- weight of water. It fuses at 500° Fah- 

solve it ? ° 

At what tempera- renheit, and, when the temperature is in- 

ture does it fuse ? ' 7 * 

inhe temperature crease d ? pure is liberated. See page 41. 

what follows i ' Exp 129 p lace in a mo rtar two grains 
of sulphur and six of K, CIO 6 (chlorate of 
potassa) ; pulverize them thoroughly to- 
gether with a pressure not exceeding ten 

what is Exp. 139? pounds. Collect the whole into a conical 
pile, upon a smooth stone or other hard 
surface, and strike the mass with a ham- 
mer. A deafening report will follow. 



124 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY 



full. 



<;ivc Exp. 130 in Exp. 130. Cover a piece of P (phos- 
phorus), of the size of a radish-seed, with 
pulverized K, CIO 6 , and strike the mass 
forcibly, as in Exp. 129. Another loud re- 
port will ensue. K, CIO 6 is one of the ae- 

of what is rhio- tive principles of percussion powder, also 
awe jwinci- of lucifer matches. It is decomposed by- 



rate 

actr 

I ilc 



How may* be d«- some of the stronger acids 



composed ! 



- 



Exp, 131. Fill a wine-glass with hot 
water, in which place five grains of? and 
ten of K, CIO 6 . Now bring in contact 
Give Exp. 131. with the mass, by means of the dropping- 
tube, some strong sulphuric acid. The 
P will burn under water. The salt is de- 
composed, and its liberated, which pro- 
duces the combustion. 

It was once attempted to use this salt 

wkat was the re- instead of nitre in the formation of gun- 
suit of attempt- .. , . . . , 

lag to use tins powder, but, on pulverizing the mass, it 

salt in the forma- 

tion of gunpow- exploded, spreading destruction far and 
wide. 

Exp. 132. Place ten drops of HC1 (hy- 
\vhatisExp.i3-j? drochloric acid) and ten grains of this salt 
in a pint of rain water. The solution has 
what is the for- marked bleaching properties. 
Sbi^tV? 1110 " 16 Ba > C1 ° 6 > or Ba0 > C1 ° 5 (chlorate of ba- 
^stail? ° f its ryta), crystallizes in four-sided prisms, and 
1 \vat°er taj^wS is soluble in about four times its weight 
For what is this of cold water. This salt is sometimes 
ased? ' " used for obtaining CIO 4 (chlorous acid). 



PHOSPHATE- 125 



LESSON XXX. 
Phosphates. 
what is the term PO° (page 46) is called phosphoric acid. 



commonlv 

piled to the for- as this is the term commonlv applied to 

mulaPO-5? ri 

this compound. It will he rememhered, 
Does this com- however, that PO 6 possesses no acid prop- 
acid properties? erties until it has comhined with an atom 
when acting as of HO, when its prohable composition is 
its probable com- PO 6 , H. Authors generally take the po- 

ti<m1 . i~fp i 

v. 'hat position do sition that there are different hydrates of 

authors general- 
ly take in refer- pQs "j^ as these hydrates require a differ- 
once to the differ- •' * 

o? p c° r and U H^ s en ^ amount 0I * base, it would seem more 
L requfre 6 the d sarnl natural to consider each as a distinct 

amount offase? acid. The so called hydrates are PO 5 , 
Give the formma HO ; PO 5 , 2HO ; and PO 5 , 3HO. The 

hydrates. acids are probably PO 5 . H : PO : . H 2 ; and 

What is the prob- l J ' 

able composition PO 8 , H 3 . It will he remembered that all 

of the acids I 

now do aii hydro- hydrogen acids form salts by replacing the 
pits ? C1 s ' m hydrogen with a metal. If there be but 
atom of hydrogen one atom of hydrogen in the acid, but one 

in the acid, how ij 

much of the met- atom of metal will be required to form a 

al will be re- " 

quired to form neutral salt, that is, a salt which has nei- 

the salt ! ' ' 

what is under- ^her acid nor alkaline properties. If the 

stood by a neu- i * 

trai salt ? ac ^ contains two or three atoms of hydro- 

gen, two or three atoms of the metal will 



L26 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

what is the acid be required to form the salt. An acid 

called whic . 

bat one atom of containing one atom of hydrogen is called 

hydro. ■ - • 

if it contains two monobasic, one containing two atoms bi- 

atoms. what ! ( ° 

if three atoms; basic, and one containing three atoms 
tribasic. PO H is* a monobasic acid. 
PO'H 2 a bibasic acid, and PC^H 3 a tri- 
basic acid. Then we shall have of the 
phosphates of soda, 

Give the mono- l l 7 

Monobasic Acid. Bibasic AciJ. asic Acid. 

Jht _\a. PO 6 . up*.". 3Na, F 

who fir* angg«a- Liebig firs sted this theory, which 

has since been gradually gaining favor 
v\ ith the progressive chemists of the 
r - until it is regarded ss ential part of 

garded ? l 

the science. 



Chrom< 
Give the formula KO. 2CiO a (bichromate of potassa) is a 
..otassa. beautiful red crystalline salt, which is 

re its color % ^ 

andrr easily soluble in water, and is used ex- 

tensivelv in calico printing. Its solutions 

what effect do its should not be brought in contact with the 

solutions pro- . ,. 

duce upon the skin, otherwise lmgermg sores will be pro- 
duced, 
what rO 3 (chromate of lead) is a pow- 

muiaofchroi:. , . , . i i 1 • i i 

of lead i der which is not soluble m water, and lias 

a fine yellow color. It is commonly call- 

is it com- ed Chrome Yellow. (See Exp. 9. page 

monly called ? . 

_l9.) 

"2PbO. CrO 3 (dichromate ol lead) is 



BORATES CARBONATES. 127 

what is it com- commonly called Red Lead, and is thus 

monlv called T ~- -.. 

where is it found, found in nature. Its form is crystalline, 

and -what is its . . 

use; and it is used extensively as a paint. 

Borates. 
what is the for- NaO, 2B0 3 (biborate of soda — borax) 

mula of biborate .., ... , . , , 

of soda] is the only important salt oi tne borates. 

Of what is it the . ^ x 

only important It is used as a nux for welding and sol- 

salt 1 ° 

what are its im- derinsf, on account of its solvent power 

port ant uses ? ^ 7 r 

Wh 5" ? when heated to redness. 



Carbonates. 
should cos and CO 2 (carbonic acid) and BO 3 (boracic 

B03 be called v ' \ 

acids? acid) ought not really to be caned acids, 

why not ? as neither has power to neutralize the al- 

wiu two equiv- kalies. Even two equivalents of CO 2 or 

alents of either 

of 

neutralize i 



nts oi euner 

these bodies BO 3 to one of IvO (potassa), form alkaline 

__.Jitralizethe al- XI ' 

kaiine properties salts. E.sr.: KO, 2C0 2 (bicarbonate of 

nf nnrassa 1 <D ' \ 



of potassa] 

potassa) possesses nearly as strong alka- 
line properties as the KO did before it 
was united with the 2 CO 2 . 
Give the formula KO, CO 2 (carbonate of potassa). This 

of carbonate of 

potassa. compound will not crystallize, and is used 

For what is it . . J 

used? m mineral analysis as a mix. 

vhat is the for- KO, 2C0 2 + 2 aq.^ (bicarbonate of po- 

mula of bicarbon- . 1 

ate of potassa? tassa). Ihis body crystallizes, and does 

Has this salt any 
water of crystal- 
lization ? 

Does it deliquesce 

when exposed to * ^ means water, and when used in connection 
air ? ^ 

What is the mean- "^h sa ^ ts ) ** denotes the water of crystallization. 
ing of deliquesce ! f Deliquesce means to melt or turn to liquid Ef- 



not deliquescet on exposure to air. 



--" .- .--7 - .- 3 : : .- izs :• :--': "-"•; 

e****™^ ^CO^lOao^orlSaC -lOaq. 

■fc (c ailmjiate of soda), is a oodr wftien ctts- 

:.i"-~.^. IT--". — "_ : ~ ^r;. :-•:•: :.: i::. ::r_-I-:- 

_ - . ■ - . . . - _■ - - . . ■. • ■ - 

tassa). and is mudi c h c ap e i. 

». 133. Add an ounce of Kb, CO 3 
wtacacxxp-sxr (e ai o u n ai e of soda) to a w a sfaiu g-ttib foil 
of haid wafer. It will l« rendered soft, 
iq. (Taea ioo n at e of soda). 

ijt tbo fixm of a wfaiic powder. It frmg 

~.z.~. -~-.:" --:\z.z _ ::"'f7";" :: >^ " :«:~- 



■fe :.- wmftt _ 

nrtonaiK nmn- ammoma) b a nanL cnrstalaiye salt, 

j - 



_ 
(laeanionate). 




at CaO. CO* (ca u uuna h ? of lane) air 

::.'."; lt_ _ .~. - " "' . i i _ .'. t. _^iT^"rr_r. 
:i_ : -i_ :-i.:t ::" - -~;i7 ; ~"t7 :r_:. :"_irT 

:' : " ""..' 




CARBONATES. 129 

in contact with more CO 2 (carbonic acid), 
the CaO, CO 2 is dissolved, which renders 
the water hard. (See Exp. 133, page 
128). The soda unites with the excess 
why wm soda of CO 2 , and the CaO, CO 2 is precipitated, 

render hard wa- 
ter soft i when the water is rendered soft. 

what is the for- Pb, CO 3 , or PbO, CO 2 (carbonate of lead), 

miila of carbon- -i i i r i i t 

ate ofiead? i s the common white lead of the shops. It 

"W hat is its com- _ _ - 1 

monname? i s sometimes found in nature, when it is 

W hen found in ' 

SfeS^ ati?it called White-lead Spar. It is the most 
what of its pois- deadly of all the poisonous compounds of 

onous proper- . - ■ • 

ties ? lead. If pure water be allowed to stand 

Should water be x 

allowed to stand j n l ea d en vessels exposed to air, it will in 

in leaden ves- i ' 

sels? a short time contain small particles of the 

PbO, CO 2 . These particles often prove 
destructive to health, though not taken 
in sufficient quantity to produce death. 

should pure water Hence pure water conducted through 

which is con- . . 

ducted through leaden pipes should not be taken into the 

leaden pipes be *- 

taken into the stomach. Should the water contain por- 

stomach ? * 

if the water con- tions of other salts before comins: in con- 
tained salts be- o 

?on e tact wiih tne tact witn tne l ead > ** is * ess dangerous to 

dangius^'S use it. There are many other salts, which 

are unimportant to the student, which 

have been omitted for the sake of brevity. 

F2 



1 30 




XXL 

viiieh exist in plants and 

- 
matt, principles. Stearine and oleine, the 
chief ingredients of animal fate* are prox- 

r .:.:■. ;:.::..' — 7:.-:-: r~ . ".oil-*- ::...y 

irate of oxide of glyceryls, and oleine 
an oleate of the same base. The oxide 

vktkteami of giycrr.\. > :1-: -"v.: ::^:;;-'.: :: ill 
»nim»l fats and oik. When the base 

when I*!**™ or contact wnn steanne and oleine. me 

• » • - .• - ■ 

iCTwaiia weaker base oxide of glyceryle is libera- 

■* Tr.: ":y -_zl\-e ■..,:'.--: :>rL:..~\ :::.l -;.•: 

^ iuc a. two /fll adds, oleic and stearic, unite. 
i£b the potaflBB at soda, and fann 



«. " * te azi ri-li c,' Ifa. b^ e:iher df 



Dm*e a* «- _Exp. 134. To a dracfam of caustic po- 

. . - 






BREAD-MAKING. 131 

tallow, and boil for half an hour. Pour 
off the liquid into a larger vessel, and add 
soft water gradually until the mass as- 
sumes a jelly-like appearance. It is soft 
soap. 
How is hard soap Exp. 135. Use caustic soda in the 

formed? . 

what alkali is above instead of potassa, and hard soap 

used in forming 

soft soap ? w ill "be formed. Hence soft soap is a po- 

In forming hard * x 

soa P ? tassa soap, and hard soap a soda soap. 

now may soda Exp. 136. Dissolve some soft soap in 

from soft soap ? hot water, and add some table salt. The 

soap will rise to the surface in a condensed 

mass. It is now soda soap. This process 

why is this pro- is resorted to by soap-makers on account 

cess resorted, to 

by soap-makers ? of its cheapness when compared with hard 

soap formed directly from caustic soda. 
From what is Marseilles soap is made from soda and 

Marseilles soap 

made? olive oil. When colored with metallic 

oxides and perfumed, it is called Castile 

What do soaps r , ... ■ » , . •_ 1 " , 

contain which soap, feoaps which impart thick lathers 

impart strong . 

lathers? contain cocoa-nut oil as an ingredient. 



Bread-makin 



what are the Bread can be made from flour, which 

proximate prin- 
ciples of flour ? contains starch, sugar, and vegetable 

fibrin. These compounds are proximate 

what is vegetable principles, and the latter is sometimes 

fibrin sometimes . - 

called? called gluten. The flour is first mixed 

What is first done _ ° 

with the flour? with water (dough), when yeast or leaven 
is incorporated with it, and it is allowed 



130 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY 



LESSON XXXI. 
Fats and Alkalies. 
what are proxi- Compounds which exist in plants and 

mate principles .1 • » ^ i, t 

animals, ready iormed, are caned proxi- 
m the mate principles. Stearine and oleine, the 

chief inf . . _ . ,. r . - 

of animal fats' chief ingredients oi animal iats, are prox- 

Are thev proxi- . . i t 

mate principles! imate principles. Inese two bodies may 

iiow may they be be regarded as salts, stearine being a 

stcarate of oxide of glyceryle, and oleine 

an oleate of the same base. The oxide 

of glyceryle is the sweet principle of all 

mai fat's and oils- animal fats and oils. When the base 

what becomes of KO (potassa) or XaO (soda) is brought in 

when potassa or contact with stearine and oleine, the 

soda is brought . 

in contact with weaker base oxide of si veer vie is libera- 

stearine and ole- ° * 

ine? ted by single elective affinity, and the 

with what do two fat acid*, oleic and stearic, unite 

vith the potassa or soda, and form stear- 

What do , 

ate and oleate of these bases, either of 

(iive the common 

name of the com- which IS SOd-D. 
pound. 

Soft Soap. 
Describe the ex- Exp. 134. To a drachm of caustic po- 
king soft soap, tassa add an ounce of water : transfer to 
a chemical flask: add an ounce of mutton 



BREAD-MAKING. 131 

tallow, and boil for half an hour. Pour 
off the liquid into a larger vessel, and add 
soft water gradually until the mass as- 
sumes a jelly-like appearance. It is soft 



How is hard soap Exp. 135. Use caustic soda in the 

formed? . in 7 

what alkali is above instead of potassa, and hard soap 
soft soap ? ° w iH he formed. Hence soft soap is a po- 

In forming hard L A 

soa P ? . tassa soap, and hard soap a soda soap, 

now may soda Exp. 136. Dissolve some soft soap in 
from soft soap ? hot water, and add some table salt. The 
soap will rise to the surface in a condensed 
mass. It is now soda soap. This process 
why is this pro- is resorted to by soap-makers on account 

cess resorted to -i-ii-ii 

by soap-makers ? oi its cheapness when compared with hard 

soap formed directly from caustic soda. 
From what is Marseilles soap is made from soda and 

Marseilles soap 

made? olive oil. when colored with metallic 

oxides and perfumed, it is called Castile 

contain Sh soap. Soaps which impart thick lathers 

impart strong . . , . , . 

lathers? contain cocoa-nut oil as an ingredient. 

Bread-making. 

what are the Bread can be made from flour, which 

cipies of fiour? contains starch, sugar, and vegetable 

fibrin. These compounds are proximate 

what is vegetable principles, and the latter is sometimes 

called? ' called gluten. The flour is first mixed 

What is first done ° 

with the flour? with, water (dough), when yeast or leaven 
is incorporated with it, and it is allowed 



132 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

to stand in a warm place until the mass 

increases considerably in bulk. It is then 

what next 7 subjected to heat (baked), and the prop- 
Do the properties . J v /; r x 

of the flour un- erties of the flour undergo a decided 

demo a change ° 

by being baked ? change. In the process of fermentation 

In the process •! 

^a f ™ u ?S ( risin 2)> C ° 2 (carbonic acid) is liberated 
in'what form ? m small bubbles, which cause the in- 
V bubhies d ?ause? e creased size of the loaf, as well as its po- 
rous appearance when baked. This pro- 
This process is cess is called the vinous ferment . It is 

called what .' . 

what proximate the sugar of the flour that is acted on by 

principle of the .... 

flour is acted on the yeast, which is converted into carbon- 

by the yeast ! " 

into what is it i c aoiJ and alcohol, both of which escape 

converted ? * 

is the starch in baking. The starch is unchanged dur- 

changed during m 

fermentation ' mg icrmentation, but The sugar and a 

Does anv part of ° . ° 

part of the nbrin disappear. The fibrin 

pear who the * * ■ 

and sugar being nutritive, it is desirable 

\\ by is it desira- ° ° 

l,Ie t0 ive them. In order to accomplish 

.ml fibrin .' I 

*ject *be accom- * ms object, bread is raised by means of 

pushed? carbonate of soda and diluted hydrochlo- 

ric acid. The soda is first dissolved in 
water and incorporated with the flour, 

Give the pmrpss. after which the diluted acid is quickly 
kneaded into it. The stronger acid de- 
composes the base, soda, and the carbonic 

Tbe formula. acid is liberated. Formula: IS T aO, CO 2 ; 
HCl = HO; tod; CO 2 . It will be seen 

Name the result- that the resulting compounds are water, 

ing compounds. - . . 

common salt, and carbonic acid. Joy this 
mode the fibrin and sugar are saved, to- 



BREAD-MAKING. 133 

> 

gether with that portion of water which 
is not driven off in the form of vapor. 
How much water, Bread contains about one sixth part of its 
does bread con- weight of water in the solid form. 

tain ? D 



As the student of this neglected branch of popular 
education has now crossed its threshold, it is to he 
hoped he will not content himself with having mas- 
tered the few elementary principles embodied in the 
foregoing pages, as the greater novelties and beauties 
of the subject are yet to be unfolded. By becoming 
still more familiar with the invisible causes which pro- 
duce the prominent phenomena of chemical science, 
he will be irresistibly led to behold nature in the light 
of a vast chemical laboratory, performing upon a grand- 
er scale the same processes that the chemist so suc- 
cessfully imitates in his limited sphere. The rain, the 
dews, the snow, the hail, the breeze, the hurricane, the 
water-spout, the earthquake, and the volcano, are all 
phenomena which result from those chemical laws 
which produce, by their varied action, all that is beau- 
tiful, terrible, or sublime in nature. 



134 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 



APPENDIX. 

Solution of Art / g jar) of Lend. 

Tn "J 02. of water add a quarter of an oz. of acetate 
of lead. Allow the mixture to stand one hour, during 
which time it should be frequently stirred with a glass 
rod. Pour off the liquid and filter it. 

Solution of Sulpkati of Iron (Copperas). 

Add half an oz. of sulphate of iron to half a pint of 
water. Stir the solution frequently, and, after having 
stood an hour, it should be filtered. 

Infusion of NutgalL 
Pulverize a light-colored nutgall in a non-metallic 
mortar, and add 4 oz. of water. Stir with a glass 
rod. and at the end of 15 minutes filter the liquid. 

Solution of Oxalic Acid. 
Add a drachm of oxalic acid to 2 oz. of water. 

Solution of Potassa. 
To 2 oz. of water add a quarter of an oz. of potassa.* 

* All chemical solutions should bo preserved in ground-stoppered 

mottles. 



SOLUTIONS. 



135 



Solution of Sulphate of Copper (Blue Vitriol). 
Add a quarter of an oz. of sulphate of copper to 2 
oz. of water. Allow trie solution to stand one hour, 
and filter it. A few drops of this liquid to a test-tube 
half full of water forms the solution used in Experi- 
ment 5. 

Solution of Nitrate of Mercury. 
To a quarter of an oz. of water and half an oz. of 
nitric acid add a drachm of mercury. Allow the liquid 
to remain 8 hours, and pour it off (decant). 

Solution of Alum. 
To 2 oz. of water add half an ounce of alum. Al- 
low the solution to stand 2 or 3 hours, and transfer the 
liquid portion. 

Solution of Bichromate of Potassa. 
To 2 oz. of water add 4 grs. of bichromate of po- 
tassa. 

Solution of Iodide of Potassium. 
To 2 oz. of water add 8 grs. of iodide of potassium. 

Solution of Bichloride of Mercury. 
To 2 oz. of water add 8 grs. of bichloride of mer- 
cury (corrosive sublimate). Allow the liquid to re- 
main 3 hours, and then filter it. 



136 fih - ay. 

Infusion of : Purple Dahlia. 

Pour warm water upon the p i un- 

til they are covered with the liquid. Allow it to stand 
in a warm place for several hours, when it may be fil- 
tered. 

ution of y Urate of Silver. 
To 2 oz. of water add a drachm of nitrate of - 
(lunar c 

of Chloride of C 

: pieces of chalk or marbk oi hydrochlo- 

ric acid until effervescence t the liquid 

portion. 

Litmus Pa: 
Place 2 drachms of litmus in a flask, and pour over 
water. Heat the mixture nearly to boiling 
for one hour, and, when cold, filter it. :« of 

white unglazed paper through the blue liquid until, on 
drying, tk me a decidedly blue color. To the 

remaining solution add lemon-juice gradually until it 
assumes a red color. Slips of paper may now be 
drawn through this until they are red when dry. The 
first is called blue test-paper, and the last red. 



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Boucharlat's Mechanics. 

-z> H. 
r. Plates. 2 25 

Boyd's Eclectic Wcrai Philosophy: 
Boyd's Rhetoric and Criticism. 

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